Umar ibn al-Khattab - His life and time, volume 1 and volume 2
Author's Purpose
The author begins by praising Allah and explaining that the book was written after encouragement from scholars and daiyahs. They noted a disconnect between modern Muslims and the era of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs (al-Khulafa ar-Rashideen). This period is rich with lessons concerning political, educational, economic, intellectual, and moral aspects of Islam, which are greatly needed today. The book aims to study the development of the Islamic state's institutions, such as the judiciary, financial systems, and military, as well as the process of ijtihad (legal reasoning) that occurred as the Muslim ummah expanded.
Historical Methodology
The author’s approach is to present the history of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs by avoiding weak and fabricated narrations. He also avoids the works of Orientalists and their secular or Rafidi followers, adhering strictly to the methodology of Ahl as-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah. This work follows a previous, well-received book on the life of Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq.
The Significance of the First Generation
The history of the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (the Sahabah) is presented as a storehouse of the ummah's treasures, including its thought, culture, knowledge, and conquests. This era provides a model for later generations to direct their affairs, nourish their souls, and enlighten their minds. The author cites Quranic verses affirming that Allah is well-pleased with the first generation of Muslims (the Muhajiroon and the Ansar) and those who follow them, describing them as "severe against disbelievers, and merciful among themselves." The Prophet also described his generation as the best of the ummah. Abdullah ibn Masood further praised the Companions as the best of the ummah, being the most sincere, knowledgeable, and unpretentious, chosen by Allah to establish His religion.
Introduction to Umar ibn al-Khattab
This book focuses on al-Farooq Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph and the best of the Companions after Abu Bakr. The author cites the Prophet's command to follow the way of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, specifically naming Abu Bakr and Umar as examples to be followed. Prophetic sayings are mentioned that highlight Umar's virtues, stating that if anyone in the ummah were to be inspired, it would be Umar. Another saying relates a dream of the Prophet in which Abu Bakr drew water weakly from a well, followed by Umar, who drew water with such strength that a very large bucket appeared in his hands, allowing all the people to drink their fill. Amr ibn al-As related that the Prophet named Aisha, then her father Abu Bakr, and then Umar ibn al-Khattab as the people most beloved to him.
Scope of the Book
The author provides a comprehensive overview of the book's contents, covering Umar's life from his birth until his martyrdom. The study details his lineage, his life during the Jahiliyah (pre-Islamic era), his conversion to Islam, and the shaping of his personality by the Quran and his companionship with the Prophet. It examines his role in military campaigns and in the society of Medinah during the time of the Prophet and Abu Bakr.
The book will also analyze the foundations of Umar's rule as caliph, including his use of shoora (consultation), his establishment of justice and equality, and his respect for personal freedom. It will describe Umar's personal characteristics, family life, and his deep respect for the Prophet's household (Ahl al-Bayt). His management of society will be explored, including his care for women, his respect for the virtuous, his efforts to meet people's needs, and his system for monitoring the marketplace. His defense of Tawheed (monotheism) and his fight against innovation are also key topics.
Furthermore, the analysis will cover Umar's focus on knowledge, his development of Medinah into a center for fatwas and fiqh (jurisprudence), and his influence on the schools of thought in Makkah, Basra, Koofah, Syria, and Egypt. The book will discuss his interest in poetry and his standards for literary criticism. It also details his infrastructure development, such as the founding of new cities, and his methods of crisis management during the famine known as the Year of ar-Ramadah and the great plague. Finally, it explains the development of financial and judicial institutions under his rule, including the sources of state income like zakah, jizyah, and kharaj, the establishment of the bayt al-mal (treasury), and the issuance of Islamic currency. His judicial rulings, methods for appointing and managing governors, and the details of the Islamic conquests of Iraq, Iran, Syria, Egypt, and Libya will also be covered.
Name, Lineage, and Attributes
Umar ibn al-Khattab's full lineage was 'Umar ibn al-Khattab ibn Nufayl ibn 'Abdul-Uzza ibn Riyah ibn Abdullah ibn Qurut ibn Razah ibn Adiyy ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib al-Qurashi al-Adawi. His ancestry converged with that of the Prophet Muhammad at Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy. He was known as Abu Hafs and earned the nickname al-Farooq, meaning the Criterion, because he openly declared his Islam in Makkah, and through him, Allah distinguished between faith and disbelief.
Born thirteen years after the Year of the Elephant, Umar was a tall, muscular, and strong man with a white and reddish complexion. He was described as being so tall that he looked as if he was on a mount. He had handsome features, large hands and feet, and was bald. He walked quickly, spoke clearly, and when he struck, he caused pain. His father was al-Khattab ibn Nufayl, and his mother was Hantamah bint Hashim ibn al-Mugheerah.
Throughout his life, Umar married seven women and had thirteen children. During the pre-Islamic period (Jahiliyah), he married Zaynab bint Madh'oon, who bore him Abdullah, Abdur-Rahman the elder, and Hafsah. He also married Maleekah bint Jarwal and Quraybah bint Abi Umayyah, both of whom he divorced after converting to Islam. After becoming Muslim, he married Umm Hakeem bint al-Harith, Jameelah bint Asim, and Atikah bint Zayd. He also married Umm Kulthoom bint Ali ibn Abi Talib, the granddaughter of the Prophet Muhammad, with whom he had two children, Zayd and Ruqayyah. He had other children from a woman from Yemen and a concubine. Umar stated that he married to produce offspring who would glorify and remember Allah.
Life in Jahiliyah
Umar grew up in Makkah and was among the few who learned to read and write. He had a harsh upbringing, as his father, al-Khattab, forced him to tend camels and would beat him if he fell short in his work. This difficult period taught him patience and toughness. In his youth, he excelled in sports like wrestling and horsemanship, enjoyed poetry, and was interested in the history of his people.
He became a successful trader, traveling to Syria in the summer and Yemen in the winter, which made him one of the wealthy men of Makkah. He held a prominent position in society and served as an ambassador for the Quraysh tribe, representing them in wars and disputes with other tribes. Sincere in his beliefs, Umar initially resisted Islam, fearing it would disrupt the established order that gave Makkah its special status among the Arabs. He was among the forefront of those who persecuted the early Muslims, once beating a slave woman who had converted until Abu Bakr purchased her freedom. Umar later reflected that the bonds of Islam would be undone when a generation arose that did not understand the nature of the Jahiliyah they had left behind.
Conversion to Islam
The first seed of faith was planted in Umar's heart when he saw Muslim women migrating to Abyssinia to escape persecution from him and others. He felt remorse and spoke to one of them, Umm Abdullah, with a kindness she had never seen from him before. The primary reason for his conversion, however, was a prayer by the Prophet: "O Allah, support Islam with the more beloved of these two men to You: Abu Jahl ibn Hisham or Umar ibn al-Khattab." The more beloved to Allah was Umar.
The story of his conversion began with his determination to kill the Prophet. With his sword, he set out for the house of al-Arqam where the Muslims were gathered. On his way, he was met by Nu'aym ibn Abdullah, who sought to divert him by telling him that his own sister, Fatimah, and her husband had become Muslims. Enraged, Umar went to his sister's house and found them reading a scroll containing Soorah Ta-Ha. He furiously attacked his brother-in-law, and when his sister tried to defend her husband, he struck her, causing her to bleed. Seeing her steadfastness and hearing her declare her faith moved him to regret.
He asked to see the scroll, but his sister insisted he first wash himself because he was "unclean." After he did so, he read the opening verses of Soorah Ta-Ha. The words had a powerful effect on him. When he read the verse, "Verily, I am Allah! There is no god but I, so worship Me," he declared that the one who spoke these words should be the only one worshipped and asked to be taken to Muhammad.
He went to the house of al-Arqam, where the companions were initially afraid to let him in. The Prophet confronted him, and Umar declared his belief in Allah and His Messenger. The Prophet and his companions shouted "Allahu Akbar," and their spirits were lifted, knowing that with Umar and Hamzah now Muslims, they would be protected.
The Impact of His Conversion
Umar was keen to practice Islam publicly. He challenged the Prophet, asking, "Are we not following the truth whether we live or die? So why should we hide?" The Prophet agreed the time had come, and the Muslims went out in two columns, one led by Umar and the other by Hamzah, and entered the Grand Mosque openly. It was on this day that the Prophet gave him the title "al-Farooq." Abdullah ibn Masood recalled, "We felt a sense of pride when Umar became Muslim... we could not circumambulate the House and pray, until Umar became Muslim." His conversion was considered a victory for Islam.
Umar became Muslim in Dhu al-Hijjah of the sixth year of the Prophethood, at the age of twenty-seven. He was the fortieth man to embrace Islam.
Migration to Medinah
When the time came for the Hijrah (migration) to Medinah, Umar insisted on doing so openly, unlike others who left in secret. He armed himself, went to the Ka'bah, performed his rituals, and then publicly challenged any man of Quraysh to try and stop him, saying, "Whoever wants his mother to be bereft of him... let him meet me behind this valley." No one dared to confront him.
He migrated with a group of his relatives and allies. He was also instrumental in planning the migration for his companions Ayyash and Hisham. Hisham was captured by the Quraysh. Ayyash was tricked by Abu Jahl into returning to Makkah with a false story about his mother's distress. Umar tried to warn Ayyash, even offering him half his wealth and his own camel to dissuade him, but Ayyash went back and was also captured and tortured. Later, when verses about Allah's mercy were revealed, Umar wrote them down and sent them to Hisham, who was inspired to escape and finally join the Prophet in Medinah.
Umar's Education through the Quran
The primary method of education for Umar ibn al-Khattab and the other Companions was the Holy Quran. The Prophet Muhammad was keen to ensure that the Quran was the sole source for their core concepts, and its verses shaped Umar's Islamic personality, purifying his heart and soul. Through the Quran, Umar developed a new set of values, aims, and behaviors.
His concept of Allah, the universe, life, Paradise, Hell, and the divine decree were all formed by Quranic teachings. He came to understand Allah as the perfect, singular Creator and the source of all blessings, whose knowledge encompasses all things. This understanding instilled in him a profound fear of Allah's punishment. It is narrated that one night he overheard a man reciting verses from Soorah at-Toor about the certainty of the Lord's torment. Umar was so affected that he dismounted his animal, leaned against a wall, and fell ill for a month, with people visiting him not knowing the cause of his sickness.
Umar's deep understanding of the Quran's aims was such that on several occasions, verses were revealed that coincided with his personal opinions. He suggested that the Maqam Ibraheem (Station of Abraham) be taken as a place of prayer, and a verse was revealed affirming this. He believed the Prophet's wives should observe hijab, and the verse of hijab was subsequently revealed. When the Prophet was displeased with his wives, Umar told them that Allah could give His Messenger better wives, a sentiment that was mirrored in a revealed verse. His opinion also aligned with the Quranic prohibition on offering funeral prayers for hypocrites, his view that the prisoners from the Battle of Badr should have been executed rather than ransomed, and his repeated prayer that alcohol be definitively forbidden.
Umar was also knowledgeable about the circumstances of revelation. He knew, for instance, that the verse "This day, I have perfected your religion for you" was revealed on a Friday, on the evening of the day of Arafah. He often asked the Prophet to clarify the meaning of verses, such as the one permitting the shortening of prayers during travel even in times of safety. He was cautious in commenting on the Quran, preferring to rely on what he had heard from the Prophet or consulting other knowledgeable Companions like Ibn Abbas.
Companionship with the Prophet Muhammad
The strongest factor in shaping Umar's character was his close companionship with the Prophet Muhammad. Living in al-Awali, on the outskirts of Medinah, Umar made an arrangement with an Ansari neighbor to visit the Prophet on alternate days. This ensured that neither of them would miss a day of revelation or teaching, and they would report the day's events to one another.
This dedication to learning was recognized by the Prophet, who had a dream in which he drank milk (symbolizing knowledge) and gave the remainder to Umar. A deep and profound love existed between the two men. It is narrated that Umar once told the Prophet he was more beloved to him than everyone except himself. The Prophet replied that Umar's faith would not be complete until the Prophet was more beloved to him than his own self. Umar then declared, "You are more beloved to me than my own self," to which the Prophet replied, "Now you have got it right, O Umar."
Umar in Military Campaigns
Umar was present at the Battle of Badr, Uhud, and all other major battles fought by the Prophet.
At Badr, he was among those who spoke in favor of fighting. During the battle, he killed his own maternal uncle, al-As ibn Hisham. Afterwards, he argued that the captured prisoners should be executed rather than ransomed. His keen security sense was also on display when he identified the enemy Umayr ibn Wahb upon his arrival in Medinah, recognizing his ill intent and taking precautions to protect the Prophet.
At the Battle of Uhud, after the Muslims suffered a setback, the Quraysh leader Abu Sufyan stood on a hillside and taunted the Muslims, asking if Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Umar were still alive. After being told by the Prophet not to answer the first questions, Umar could not restrain himself when Abu Sufyan claimed they must all be dead. Umar shouted back, "You are lying, O enemy of Allah! Allah has kept for you that which will bring you humiliation." He then engaged in a verbal exchange, proclaiming that the Muslim martyrs were in Paradise while the pagan dead were in Hell.
During the campaign against Banu al-Mustalaq, the leader of the hypocrites, Abdullah ibn Ubayy, threatened to expel the Prophet from Medinah. Umar, angered, asked the Prophet for permission to execute him. The Prophet refused, wisely explaining, "Let it not be said that Muhammad is killing his Companions." This taught Umar a valuable lesson about the importance of public perception and political consequences.
At the treaty of al-Hudaybiyah, Umar strongly objected to the terms, viewing them as humiliating for the Muslims. He passionately argued with the Prophet, asking, "Are we not Muslims? Are they not mushrikeen? Then why should we accept this humiliating deal?" The Prophet calmed him by stating that he was the Messenger of Allah and would not disobey His command. Umar later expressed deep regret for his argumentativeness that day and performed many acts of charity out of fear for the words he had spoken.
Umar's Virtues and Status
The Prophet Muhammad affirmed Umar's unique qualities in numerous sayings. He described Umar as "the inspired one of this ummah." He related a dream of seeing a palace in Paradise for Umar but refraining from entering out of respect for Umar's protective jealousy. He famously told Umar that Shaytan (Satan) would never take the same path as him. The Prophet also gave him and other companions, including Abu Bakr and Uthman, the direct glad tidings of Paradise.
During the Prophet's Sickness and Death
During the Prophet's final illness, he asked for a pen and paper to write something for the ummah. Umar, seeing the Prophet's intense pain, said, "The Book of Allah is sufficient for us." His intention was to spare the Prophet from exertion. An argument ensued among those present, and the Prophet told them to leave.
Upon the Prophet's death, Umar was in a state of shock and denial. He stood before the people and vehemently declared that the Prophet was not dead, but had gone to meet his Lord like Moses, and threatened anyone who claimed otherwise. It was only when Abu Bakr arrived and calmly recited the Quranic verse, "Muhammad is no more than a Messenger, and indeed many Messengers have passed away before him," that Umar's conviction was broken. He said that upon hearing the verse, it was as if he had heard it for the first time; his legs gave way and he fell to the ground, finally accepting that the Prophet was dead.
Role During Abu Bakr's Caliphate
Immediately following the Prophet's death, Umar played a crucial role at the gathering of Saqeefat Bani Saidah. Understanding the danger of division, he went with Abu Bakr to meet the Ansar. After a tense debate about leadership, Umar was the first to swear allegiance to Abu Bakr, arguing that the man whom the Prophet had appointed to lead the prayers should be the leader of the ummah. His decisive action is credited with uniting the Muslims behind Abu Bakr and preventing a major crisis.
During Abu Bakr's caliphate, Umar was his closest advisor. He initially disagreed with Abu Bakr's decisions to fight those who withheld zakah and to dispatch the army of Usamah, but he was convinced by Abu Bakr's unwavering resolve. His most significant contribution during this period was his foresight regarding the Quran. After many of the Quran memorizers were killed in the Battle of Yamamah, Umar was the first to approach Abu Bakr with the urgent suggestion to compile the Quran into a single volume, fearing that parts of it could be lost forever. Abu Bakr was initially hesitant to do something the Prophet himself had not done, but Umar's persistence convinced him of the necessity of the task.
Appointment as Caliph
When Abu Bakr's sickness grew intense, he gathered the senior Companions to consult them about his successor, stating that appointing a leader while he was still alive would be less likely to cause division later. The Companions deferred the choice to him. Abu Bakr then privately consulted figures like Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf and Uthman ibn Affan. Both affirmed Umar's suitability, with Uthman noting that what Umar concealed of his good character was even better than what he showed outwardly.
Some, like Talhah ibn Ubaydullah, expressed concern over Umar's known harshness. Abu Bakr explained that Umar's strictness was a counterbalance to his own leniency and that Umar would soften once he bore the responsibility of leadership. Convinced of the consensus, Abu Bakr dictated his will appointing Umar to Uthman, who then read it to the people of Medinah. The people accepted the choice and gave their oath of allegiance. This process, rooted in consultation (shoora) with the ummah's decision-makers, established the legitimacy of Umar's caliphate.
Principles of Governance
In his first speech as caliph, Umar acknowledged his own intensity, praying, "O Allah, I am harsh, so make me softer." He established the core principles of his rule, which were justice, equality, consultation, and freedom.
Justice and Equality
Umar considered justice the bedrock of the state. He famously demonstrated this when a man from Egypt complained that the son of the governor, Amr ibn al-As, had whipped him unjustly. Umar summoned both the governor and his son to Medinah. He then handed the whip to the Egyptian and instructed him to strike the governor's son in return. Umar then rebuked the governor, asking, "When did you enslave people whose mothers bore them free?" He also upheld equality regardless of religion, once ruling in favor of a Jewish man against a Muslim in a dispute.
Consultation (Shoora)
Umar institutionalized the principle of consultation. He stated, "There is nothing good in a decision taken without consultation." He kept the senior Companions in Medinah to serve as his council, but also began including knowledgeable young men, like Abdullah ibn Abbas, to prepare the next generation of leaders. He valued their input so highly that he would not proceed on any major issue without it.
Freedom
Freedom was a guaranteed right under Umar's rule, though bounded by the principles of shari'ah. This included:
Freedom of Belief: He upheld the Quranic principle of no compulsion in religion. He ensured that Jews and Christians under Muslim rule were secure in their lives, property, and places of worship.
Freedom of Opinion: He actively encouraged citizens to hold him accountable. He once said, "Whoever among you sees any crookedness in me, let him straighten it." When a man replied that they would straighten him with their swords, Umar praised Allah for having such men in the ummah.
Limited Freedoms: This freedom was not absolute. He restricted the spread of misleading theological opinions and punished those who slandered others' honor through poetry.
Character and Personal Life
Umar's rule was a reflection of his personal character, which was defined by a profound consciousness of God.
Fear of Allah and Self-Accountability: He lived in constant awareness of divine judgment, famously saying, "If a lamb were to die on the banks of the Euphrates, I would fear that Allah might call Umar to account for it." He was his own harshest critic, constantly taking stock of his actions.
Asceticism and Humility: Despite the vast wealth flowing into the state from conquests, he lived a life of extreme simplicity. He wore a waist-wrapper with a dozen patches, ate the coarsest food, and refused any comforts not available to the common people. During the famine known as the Year of ar-Ramadah, he swore off meat and ghee until the people could afford them again, stating, "How could I care for the people properly if I do not feel what they feel?"
Forbearance: Though known for his strictness, he displayed great patience. When a man publicly insulted him, Umar’s anger was instantly quelled when another Companion reminded him of the Quranic verse to "turn away from the foolish."
Umar's Management of Society
Umar was a hands-on ruler who actively managed the affairs of the community.
Night Patrols: He was famous for walking the streets of Medinah at night to check on the condition of his people. Through these patrols, he discovered the plight of a woman whose husband had been on a military campaign for too long, leading him to set a four-month limit for soldiers' absence. He found a woman trying to quiet her hungry children with a pot of boiling water, prompting him to personally carry a sack of flour to her. He and his wife even personally assisted a Bedouin woman who went into labor while camped outside the city.
Care for the People: He believed it was his duty to provide for the people's needs. He saw himself as the guardian of an orphan's wealth in his management of the public treasury. He ensured that righteous deeds were remembered and honored, showing great respect to the families of martyrs and veterans.
Market Regulation (Hisbah): He personally patrolled the markets to ensure fair dealings. He insisted that no one should trade in the market without first learning the Islamic rules of commerce to prevent usury (riba). He prohibited hoarding and punished cheaters.
Kindness to Animals: His compassion extended to all of Allah's creation. He would beat a camel driver for overburdening his animal, and he personally tended to the sick zakah camels with pitch, considering himself a servant of the ummah's property.
Analysis of the selected section is as follows:
Financial Institutions
During Umar’s caliphate, the Islamic state expanded rapidly, necessitating the formal development of its financial institutions. The underlying principle was that all wealth belongs to Allah, and humans are merely its trustees. The state's income was organized around several key sources.
Sources of State Income:
Zakah: The obligatory charity on the wealth of Muslims was collected systematically. Umar showed concern for justice in its collection, warning his agents not to take the best animals from the people. Based on his ijtihad (legal reasoning), he also extended zakah to new forms of wealth that had become common, such as horses and slaves that were held as trade goods.
Jizyah: This was a poll tax levied on non-Muslims living under the protection of the Islamic state, in return for which they were exempt from military service and guaranteed security. It was applied to Jews, Christians, and Magians (Zoroastrians). Umar exempted the poor, women, children, and the infirm from this tax. The jizyah would be waived if the state could not provide protection, as famously occurred when the Muslim army in Syria returned the jizyah to the people of Homs because they could not defend them against an approaching Byzantine army.
Kharaj: This was a land tax that became the state's most significant and stable source of income. After the conquest of the rich agricultural lands of Iraq and Syria, a major debate arose. While many soldiers wanted the land divided among them as spoils of war, Umar, after consulting senior Companions like Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muadh ibn Jabal, decided against it. Citing verses from the Quran that mention the rights of "those who came after them," he argued that leaving the land undivided would provide for future generations and fund the defense of the state's borders. Instead, he left the land in the hands of its local cultivators and imposed a fair tax, which they were able to pay. This historic decision ended the existing feudal systems and created a permanent revenue stream for the state.
'Ushoor (Tithe): Umar was the first to establish a customs duty. This was a policy of reciprocity; since other states took a one-tenth ('ushr) tax from Muslim merchants, Umar ordered the same to be taken from their merchants. The rate was tiered: 10% for merchants from states at war, 5% for dhimmi (protected non-Muslim) merchants, and 2.5% (the zakah rate) for Muslim merchants.
Ghana'im (War Booty): The conquests yielded immense transferable wealth, such as the treasures of the Persian Empire. This was distributed according to Quranic injunctions, with four-fifths going to the soldiers and one-fifth to the state treasury for orphans, the poor, and other public needs.
The Bayt al-Mal (Treasury) and Diwan (Official Records):
The massive influx of wealth made the old system of immediate distribution impractical. After a large sum of money arrived from Bahrain, Umar, on the advice of those familiar with the Persian system, established the first Diwan, or official state register. He tasked scribes with recording the names of all Muslims entitled to a stipend from the state. Stipends were allocated based on a hierarchy of precedence in Islam and relationship to the Prophet, starting with the Prophet’s family, then the veterans of the Battle of Badr, and so on, down to stipends for every newborn child.
The Judicial System
Umar oversaw a major development in the judicial system, establishing principles and institutions that would shape Islamic law for centuries.
An Independent Judiciary: He was the first ruler in Islam to formally separate the judiciary from the executive branch of government. He appointed independent judges in the provinces, such as Koofah, Basra, and Egypt, who were answerable directly to him and not to the provincial governors. This established the principle of an independent judiciary to ensure impartiality.
Principles of Justice: Umar laid out a comprehensive code for judges in his famous letter to Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari, which is considered a foundational text of Islamic jurisprudence. Its key principles included:
The burden of proof is on the plaintiff, while the oath is on the defendant.
All litigants must be treated equally in court, so that a powerful person does not expect favoritism and a weak person does not despair of justice.
Reconciliation between parties should be encouraged, as court judgments can create grudges.
A judge must not be prevented from returning to the truth if he realizes a previous judgment was mistaken, "for truth is eternal, and returning to the truth is better than persisting in falsehood."
For matters not found in the Quran or Sunnah, the judge should use analogy (qiyas) and his best reasoning.
Appointment and Conduct of Judges: Umar appointed judges based on their knowledge, piety, intelligence, and strength of character. He paid them generous salaries to ensure they would not be tempted by bribes and were free from financial pressures. He held judges to the highest standards, expecting them to be patient, to consult others in difficult matters, and not to pass judgment while angry.
Specific Rulings (Ijtihad): Umar's reign is noted for his many legal rulings based on his understanding of the aims of shari'ah.
He suspended the prescribed punishment (hadd) for theft during the Year of ar-Ramadah, reasoning that people stealing out of severe hunger were acting out of necessity, a condition that negates the punishment.
He ruled that if a group of people participated in a murder, all should be executed in retaliation, establishing a precedent to prevent people from colluding to shed blood.
After consulting the Companions, he increased the punishment for public consumption of alcohol to eighty lashes as a deterrent because the practice had become more common with the expansion of the state.
He ruled that a threefold divorce pronounced in a single sitting would count as three irrevocable divorces. This was a disciplinary measure to stop people from misusing divorce, and was based on evidence from the Sunnah indicating that such a pronouncement, if intended as final, was binding.
Analysis of Section 1: Chapter 5: The Fiqh of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab in Dealing with Governors
The Administrative Division of the State
When Umar ibn al-Khattab became caliph, the Islamic state expanded, prompting him to divide it into large administrative regions. This system was a continuation of the one established by Abu Bakr, with Umar making changes and appointing new governors as needed. The caliph himself served as the primary governor of Madeenah, appointing a deputy like Zayd ibn Thabit or Ali ibn Abi Talib when he was absent. Madeenah was the state's capital, the source of commands, the starting point for armies, and a center for knowledge sought by students from all regions.
In Makkah, several governors served, including Nafi ibn al-Harith, who was in office when Umar died. During his tenure, the Haram was expanded by purchasing and demolishing adjacent houses. Makkah was also a crucial administrative center, as it was where all provincial governors met with the caliph during the Hajj season. The governorship of at-Ta'if was held by Uthman ibn Abi al-As for the first two years of Umar’s caliphate before he left for jihad; Sufiyan ibn Abdullah ath-Thaqafi was later appointed. The region was agriculturally active and remained a stable, major city of the state.
Yemen was a stable province whose governors, appointed by Abu Bakr, were initially approved by Umar. Ya'la ibn Umayyah became the most famous governor of Yemen under Umar, managing affairs and corresponding with the caliph on matters like zakah and facing complaints that required him to travel to Madeenah. Abdullah ibn Abi Rabee'ah al-Makhzoomi governed a smaller area within Yemen called al-Janad. The people of Yemen played a significant role in the military conquests of Syria, Iraq, and Egypt, with many Yemeni tribes migrating to settle in new cities like Basra and Koofah.
The province of Bahrain, which also had administrative ties to Oman and al-Yamamah, was a primary source of land tax (kharaj) and poll tax (jizyah). Its initial governor was al-Ala ibn al-Hadrami, who was later dismissed for undertaking a sea campaign against Persia without Umar's permission. Following him, several governors were appointed, including Uthman ibn Abi al-As, Qudamah ibn Madh'oon, and the well-known companion Abu Hurayrah.
Egypt was conquered and governed by Amr ibn al-As, who remained in his post until Umar's death. Umar frequently intervened in the affairs of the province, and Amr utilized the experience of local Egyptians for collecting taxes. He prevented his troops from becoming distracted by farming, ensuring their focus remained on jihad. Within a few years, Egypt was organized into a major, stable Islamic province that saw many of its people convert to Islam due to the justice they experienced.
In Syria, Umar dismissed Khalid ibn al-Waleed and appointed Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah as the chief governor. Abu Ubaydah organized the province and appointed agents in various regions. After he died in the plague of Amwas, he was briefly succeeded by Mu'adh ibn Jabal, who also died shortly after. Yazeed ibn Abi Sufiyan then became leader of the troops in Syria until his death, after which his brother Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufiyan was appointed governor of Damascus. Mu'awiyah's authority was initially limited, with other officials in charge of the judiciary and leading prayers, but his role expanded, and by the end of Umar’s caliphate, he governed all of Syria.
The conquests in Iraq began under Abu Bakr. Umar first appointed Abu Ubaydah ibn Mas'ood ath-Thaqafi, who was martyred. He was succeeded by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, who became the first governor of the newly founded city of Koofah. Sa'd achieved great conquests, introduced agricultural reforms, and was praised by the city's wise men. After Sa'd's dismissal due to complaints, Ammar ibn Yasir was appointed, followed by al-Mugheerah ibn Shu'bah. Basra, the other major city in Iraq, was governed by Utbah ibn Ghazwan, then al-Mugheerah ibn Shu'bah, and most famously by Abu Moosa al-Ash'ari, under whom many parts of Persia were conquered. Al-Mada'in, the former Persian capital, was governed by Salman al-Farisi and later Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, both known for their asceticism. Further east, Azerbaijan was governed by Utbah ibn Farqad as-Sulami.
Principles for Appointing Governors
Umar established a stringent and principled process for selecting governors, viewing the appointments as a sacred trust. He believed that choosing anyone other than the best available candidate was a betrayal of Allah, His Messenger, and the believers. He personally examined all matters of governance and relied only on trustworthy and sincere men.
His selection was based on several key principles. The primary criteria were capability and trustworthiness; he once replaced a governor, explaining that while he thought well of him, he wanted someone more capable. Knowledge of Islam was crucial, especially for army leaders. He also valued practical wisdom, appointing men who knew how to manage affairs even if others surpassed them in piety, because he understood that a good but inexperienced man was more likely to be manipulated. Umar also considered social factors, refusing to appoint a desert-dweller over town-dwellers, as a governor needed to understand the culture of the people he ruled.
Compassion and mercy were essential traits. He rejected a candidate who admitted to never kissing his own children, stating the man was not merciful enough to govern. He did not appoint any of his own relatives, such as his son Abdullah ibn Umar, to avoid nepotism. Furthermore, he refused to appoint anyone who actively sought a position of power.
Once appointed, Umar set strict conditions. He forbade governors and their agents from engaging in trade to prevent conflicts of interest. He recorded their net worth upon appointment to hold them accountable for any unusual increase in wealth. He required them to live simply: they could not ride non-Arabian horses, eat fine bread, wear fine clothes, or close their doors to people in need. The selection process itself involved consultation with senior companions and testing candidates, sometimes for as long as a year, to ensure their character was sound. Finally, each appointment was formalized with a written contract, witnessed by the Muhajireen and Ansar.
Characteristics and Rights of Governors
Umar’s governors were distinguished by their strength of faith, sincerity, and exemplary conduct. They were known for their asceticism (zuhd), with leaders like Sa'eed ibn Amir and Salman al-Farisi living simple lives. They were also known for their profound humility, dressing, living, and traveling like ordinary people, making it difficult for visitors to distinguish them from the common folk. Many were also pious men who were reluctant to accept leadership roles, with some asking to be relieved of their duties to seek martyrdom in jihad instead. A notable characteristic was their deep respect for previous governors, praising their predecessors and ensuring a smooth transition of power.
Governors were afforded certain rights to help them fulfill their duties. The people were obligated to obey them, so long as their commands did not involve sin. The public was also expected to provide sincere advice and convey correct news to their governors, while the caliph was to support his governors' legitimate decisions to maintain their authority. Governors had the right to exercise ijtihad, or independent reasoning, in matters not explicitly defined by Islamic law or the caliph’s instructions. Even after dismissal, they were to be treated with respect.
To ensure their integrity, governors were granted material rights. Umar insisted on providing them with sufficient salaries to make them financially independent and less susceptible to bribery. These salaries varied by region and could be in the form of food or money. Some governors were reluctant to accept payment, wishing their work to be an act of charity, but Umar insisted they take it, following the Prophet’s precedent. The state also took responsibility for treating governors if they fell ill.
The Duties of Governors
The duties assigned to governors were comprehensive, covering religious, civil, military, economic, and social spheres. Their foremost responsibility was establishing religious affairs. This included spreading Islam in conquered lands, establishing regular prayer, building mosques, organizing the Hajj pilgrimage, and carrying out hadd punishments for major sins. Umar emphasized to his governors that prayer was the most important of their affairs, as its neglect would lead to negligence in all other matters.
Governors were also military commanders responsible for jihad, ensuring the security of their province, fortifying cities, and gathering intelligence on the enemy. They were tasked with sending out volunteers for jihad and managing military records. They were required to implement treaties made with non-Muslims, protecting the rights of the dhimmis (protected non-Muslim subjects) and ensuring they were not burdened with more than they could bear.
On the economic and social front, governors strove to ensure that all people received their stipends and had enough food. They checked on markets to prevent hoarding and oversaw the distribution of housing in newly founded cities. They appointed their own agents and employees, often in consultation with the caliph. They were commanded to consult with wise men in their province, honor prominent people, and oversee developmental projects like digging canals. Umar insisted that his governors remain humble, visit the sick, and not discriminate between Arabs and non-Arabs, making it clear that it was an evil for a man to despise his Muslim brother.
Caliphal Oversight and Accountability
Umar did not simply appoint the best men; he meticulously monitored their performance, famously stating, "It is better for me to dismiss one governor every day than to leave a wrongdoer in place for even one minute." He established a sophisticated system of oversight. He had a secret service that watched his governors, ensuring that news from across the empire reached him daily.
To maintain accountability, he required governors visiting Madeenah to enter by day so any wealth they carried could be seen. He asked them to send delegations of local people whom he could question directly about their governor's conduct and the state of their lands. He established a mail service that allowed citizens to send complaints directly to him without the local governor's knowledge.
He appointed a general inspector, Muhammad ibn Maslamah, whose role was to investigate complaints against senior governors across the caliphate. The annual Hajj season served as a "general assembly," where Umar would meet all his governors, listen to public complaints, and settle scores. Before his death, Umar planned to personally tour the provinces for a year to check on his governors and the people's condition, a task he partially fulfilled with surprise visits to Syria. Finally, he kept a state archive to preserve all official documents and treaties, ensuring that agreements were honored and no one was wronged.
Handling Complaints and Dispensing Justice
Umar personally investigated all complaints against his governors. When the people of Koofah complained about their governor, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, accusing him of not leading the prayer correctly, Umar sent Muhammad ibn Maslamah to investigate openly. Though the accusations were proven false and prompted by troublemakers, Umar dismissed Sa'd to quell any potential for widespread unrest, while affirming his respect for him by later nominating him for the caliphate.
He was equally strict with Amr ibn al-As, the governor of Egypt. When Amr's son struck an Egyptian with a whip, Umar summoned them both to Madeenah, handed the whip to the Egyptian, and allowed him to strike Amr's son in return. He famously rebuked Amr, saying, "When did you enslave people whose mothers bore them free?"
Umar had various methods of discipline. He allowed people to settle scores (qisas) with governors who had wronged them. He dismissed governors for errors, such as one who encouraged his troops to confess their sins, and another who wrote poetry mentioning wine. He ordered the gate of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas's house in Koofah burned down because it functioned to keep people away. He was also known to discipline governors by hitting them with his stick, demoting them to a shepherd, or confiscating a portion of any wealth they had accumulated beyond their salary, believing it was gained due to their position of authority. He also issued sharp verbal and written rebukes.
Despite his strictness, there was a strong bond of love and loyalty between Umar and his governors. They trusted his sincerity and justice, and he worried immensely for their welfare. When Mu'awiyah justified his regal entourage in Syria as necessary to intimidate the Byzantine enemy, Umar accepted his reasoning, saying, "If you are telling the truth, it is a smart idea, and if you are lying, it is a smart and subtle trick. I am not commanding you and I am not forbidding you."
The Dismissal of Khalid ibn al-Waleed
The dismissal of Khalid ibn al-Waleed occurred in two stages and was based on objective reasons rooted in Umar's principles of governance. The first dismissal from general leadership in Syria happened immediately after Umar became caliph. It stemmed from a fundamental difference in administrative philosophy. Abu Bakr had given his commanders freedom to act as they saw fit, but Umar believed the caliph was responsible for every detail and required governors to report everything to him and await his commands. Khalid preferred the freedom he had under Abu Bakr and resisted the new, centralized approach. Umar's decision was based on his policy of rule and his right as caliph to choose commanders who were in harmony with his methods. Khalid accepted the dismissal without objection and continued to serve loyally under Abu Ubaydah.
The second dismissal occurred after Khalid generously gave ten thousand dirhams to a poet. Umar ordered an investigation into the source of the funds. Although Khalid was proven innocent of using public funds, Umar dismissed him. The reasons were multifaceted. Primarily, Umar feared the people were becoming too attached to Khalid, thinking victory came from him alone, which could weaken their faith that victory comes only from Allah; this was a "protection of Tawheed." There were also differences in how state money should be spent; Umar prioritized the poor and weak, while Khalid believed in rewarding men of power and influence to strengthen their resolve. Finally, the dismissal was a way to allow room for new military leaders to develop their talents.
The Muslim society accepted the dismissal as the caliph's right. An objection was raised by Khalid's cousin, but Umar tolerated his angry defense. On his deathbed, Khalid reflected on the matter, realizing that Umar's actions were all intended to please Allah. He acknowledged that while Umar was harsh with him, he was harsh with everyone for the sake of justice and did not care for family ties when applying the law. He entrusted the execution of his will to Umar, and Umar wept and mourned deeply for him upon his death.
The Conquests of Iraq and the East at the Time of 'Umar
Early Campaigns in Iraq
Following the death of Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab exhorted the Muslims to continue the fight against the Persians in Iraq. The first to answer the call was Abu Ubayd ath-Thaqafi, whom Umar appointed as the new commander. The initial battles under Abu Ubayd were successful; Muslim forces won at an-Namariq, as-Saqatiyah, and Baroosma, defeating several Persian commanders.
However, the campaign suffered a major setback at the Battle of the Bridge. Against the advice of his commanders, Abu Ubayd chose to cross the river to a narrow, disadvantageous position to engage a massive Persian army equipped with war elephants. The elephants terrified the Muslim horses, neutralizing their cavalry. In the ensuing chaos, Abu Ubayd was killed while trying to attack an elephant, and a series of successive commanders also fell. The retreat turned into a disaster when a Muslim soldier cut the bridge prematurely, causing many to drown. Only the steadfast leadership of al-Muthanna ibn Harithah, who took command and organized a heroic rearguard action, saved the remnant of the army from annihilation.
Despite the devastating loss, al-Muthanna raised the morale of his troops by pursuing and defeating two Persian leaders. He then regrouped and received reinforcements sent by Umar. This led to the Battle of al-Buwayb, where al-Muthanna faced another large Persian army. This time, the Muslims achieved a crushing victory, with some reports stating that one hundred thousand Persians were slain. The battle was a turning point that restored Muslim morale and gave them control over the region between the two rivers.
The Battle of al-Qadisiyah
As the Persians amassed a great army under their chief commander, Rustam, Umar appointed the esteemed companion Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas to lead the Muslim forces in Iraq. Before Sa'd departed, Umar provided him with extensive advice, emphasizing that victory comes from piety and obedience to Allah, not military strength alone. He warned that the sins of an army are more dangerous than the enemy and instructed Sa'd to be patient, strategic, and just.
Following Umar's command, Sa'd sent a delegation of fourteen of his wisest men, led by an-Nu'man ibn Muqrin, to the Persian King Yazdagird. They invited him to Islam, offering peace and self-rule under the new order. If he refused, they offered him protected status in exchange for the jizyah (poll tax). If he refused that, the only option was war. Yazdagird arrogantly dismissed them. A similar offer was made to Rustam, who delayed for three days before preparing for battle.
The Battle of al-Qadisiyah lasted four days. Sa'd, who was ill and could not fight, directed the battle from a fort overlooking the field.
Day 1 (Day of Armah): The Persians used their war elephants to disrupt the Muslim cavalry. The battle raged until nightfall, with the tribe of Banu Asad bearing the brunt of the assault until the Banu Tameem successfully neutralized the elephants by cutting their saddle-girths.
Day 2 (Day of Aghwath): Reinforcements from Syria arrived, led by the brilliant warrior al-Qa'qa ibn Amr. He cleverly divided his men into small groups, making them arrive in waves to give the impression of a much larger force, which greatly boosted Muslim morale. Al-Qa'qa himself slew several Persian commanders in single combat. The Muslims also devised a new tactic, disguising their camels to frighten the Persian horses. The four sons of the poetess al-Khansa were all martyred on this day.
Day 3 (Day of 'Imas): The fighting continued with great intensity. The Muslims finally managed to neutralize the two lead elephants by targeting their eyes and trunks, causing the entire elephant corps to stampede and flee. That night, known as the "Night of al-Hareer" (the Night of Rumbling Noises), the battle raged without pause in the darkness, with neither side giving way.
Day 4 (Day of al-Qadisiyah): As the battle continued into the fourth day, a violent windstorm blew, tearing away Rustam's canopy and exposing him. As he tried to flee, he was caught and killed by a Muslim soldier named Hilal ibn Ullafah. The death of their commander shattered the Persian army, which broke and fled in a rout, giving the Muslims a decisive victory. The victory at al-Qadisiyah was a pivotal moment that broke the back of the Persian military and opened the way to their capital.
The Conquest of the Persian Heartland
Two months after the victory at al-Qadisiyah, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas advanced on the Persian capital, al-Mada'in (Ctesiphon). The Muslims besieged the western part of the city, Bahurseer, for two months before entering it. The Persian king and his army had fled across the Tigris River to the eastern side, destroying all the boats. In a remarkable feat of faith and courage, the Muslim army, led by Sa'd, forded the raging river on horseback. The Persian defenders were so stunned to see the Muslim army seemingly walking on water that they fled in terror, abandoning the city.
The Muslims entered the great palace of Chosroes, and Sa'd led a prayer of victory in the grand hall. The amount of treasure seized was immense, including the legendary carpet of Chosroes, his crowns, swords, and jewels. The honesty of the Muslim soldiers was exemplary; one man turned in a priceless treasure chest without taking anything, refusing to even give his name so that he would only receive a reward from Allah. When the spoils reached Umar in Madeenah, he wept, not from joy, but from fear that such wealth would become a source of envy and division among the Muslims.
Following this, the remaining Persian forces gathered at Jaloola', where they fortified their position with a trench and spikes. Umar dispatched an army under Hashim ibn Utbah, with al-Qa'qa ibn Amr leading the vanguard. After a long siege and eighty skirmishes, the Muslims won another major victory, killing around one hundred thousand Persians and seizing vast amounts of booty. The conquest continued with the fall of Ramhormuz and Tastar, where the Persian commander al-Hormuzan was captured and sent to Madeenah. There, the captured general, dressed in his royal finery, was brought before Umar, whom he found sleeping in the mosque with his cloak as a pillow. Al-Hormuzan was amazed by the caliph's humility and, after a clever exchange where he secured his safety, he embraced Islam.
The Conquest of Conquests: Nahawand
The Persians made one last stand, gathering a massive army of one hundred and fifty thousand fighters at the mountain fortress of Nahawand. Umar appointed an-Nu'man ibn Muqarrin to command the Muslim army of thirty thousand. After finding the city too well-fortified to assault directly, the Muslims devised a brilliant strategy.
The cavalry, led by al-Qa'qa ibn Amr, staged a skirmish and then pretended to retreat in defeat. The overconfident Persian army poured out of their fortifications to give chase. Once they were lured far enough away, the main Muslim army, which had been hiding in ambush, emerged and attacked them from all sides. The Persians were trapped and annihilated in a battle so decisive that it became known as "the Conquest of Conquests." The Muslim commander, an-Nu'man, was martyred in the battle, a fate he had prayed for. After Nahawand, the Persian military ceased to exist as an organized force.
The Final Conquests in the East
Following the victory at Nahawand, Umar gave the Muslims permission to penetrate deep into Persia. City after city fell, including Hamadhan, al-Rayy, and Qoomees. Campaigns were launched into Azerbaijan and al-Bab (Armenia), where Muslim forces under commanders like Bukayr ibn Abdullah and Abdur-Rahman ibn Rabee'ah engaged the Daylamites and began the first campaigns against the Turks.
The final major campaign was the conquest of Khorasan, led by al-Ahnaf ibn Qays. He pursued the fugitive Persian king, Yazdagird, from city to city, conquering Herat, Marw, and Balkh. Yazdagird fled across the Oxus River, seeking help from the Turks and Chinese, but found none. Al-Ahnaf ibn Qays secured the entire region of Khorasan, establishing Muslim rule up to the borders of modern-day Afghanistan and Central Asia. Campaigns also secured the remaining southern provinces of Istakhar, Karman, Sajistan, and Mukran, completing the subjugation of the Sasanian Empire.
Lessons from the Eastern Conquests
The conquests in Iraq and the East demonstrated key principles. The morale of the Muslim soldiers was profoundly affected by the Quranic verses and prophetic sayings promising victory and the rewards of martyrdom. The author identifies several "laws of Allah" that were manifested during these events: the law of using means and causes (both spiritual and material), the law of testing believers through hardship, and the law of divine justice against oppressive empires like the Persians. The conquests proceeded according to a law of gradual progress, unfolding in stages over several years. Ultimately, victory was attributed to the Muslims' change in their spiritual state and their adherence to divine commands, while the Persian Empire was destroyed because of its sins, chief among them being disbelief and tyranny.
The Conquest of Syria
After the death of Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab's first letter to Syria announced his caliphate and appointed Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah as the new supreme commander, replacing Khalid ibn al-Waleed. Khalid accepted the command change with grace, and Abu Ubaydah, out of respect, initially concealed the order and continued to pray behind Khalid. This smooth transition exemplified the brotherhood and focus on duty that characterized the Muslim leadership.
Following Umar's strategic directive, the Muslims first targeted Damascus, the fortress of Syria and the seat of the Byzantine kingdom. Abu Ubaydah laid siege to the city, assigning different commanders to each of its main gates: Khalid at the Eastern Gate, Abu Ubaydah at the Gate of al-Jabiyah, Amr ibn al-As at the Gate of Tooma, and Yazeed ibn Abi Sufiyan at the Small Gate. The siege was harsh and lasted for seventy days. It ended when Khalid ibn al-Waleed noticed the defenders celebrating a feast; he led a daring nighttime assault, using rope ladders to scale the walls. As Khalid's forces entered the city by force from one side, the defenders on the other gates negotiated a peaceful surrender with Abu Ubaydah, leading to the city being conquered half by force and half by treaty.
With Damascus secured, the conquests continued. The Muslims next faced a large Byzantine army at Fihl. The Byzantines tried to bog down the Muslim cavalry by flooding the plains with water, but after a prolonged siege, the Muslims decisively defeated them in a surprise night battle. Following this, Shurahbeel ibn Hasanah conquered Baysan and Tabariyah. Abu Ubaydah and Khalid advanced north, conquering Homs after a harsh winter siege. They then took Qinnasreen, where Khalid won another victory so impressive that Umar remarked, "May Allah have mercy on Abu Bakr, for he had more knowledge of men than me." Caesarea was conquered by Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufiyan, which effectively secured the Syrian coast.
The final major campaign in Syria was the conquest of Jerusalem in 16 A.H. The city was besieged by forces under the command of Amr ibn al-As. After a long siege, the city's leaders, recognizing defeat was inevitable, refused to surrender to anyone but the caliph himself, whose description they claimed to have in their books. Amr relayed this to Umar, who, after consulting his companions, journeyed from Madeenah. He arrived not as a triumphant conqueror but with profound humility, riding a donkey. He met the city leaders at al-Jabiyah and granted them a treaty that became a landmark document of religious tolerance. The treaty guaranteed the safety of the people of Jerusalem, their property, their churches, and their crosses, ensuring they would not be harassed for their religion.
Later, when the Byzantines regrouped with allies from al-Jazeerah and besieged the Muslims in Homs, Umar devised a brilliant strategic plan from Madeenah. He ordered Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas in Iraq to send an army under al-Qa'qa ibn Amr to relieve Homs, while simultaneously dispatching other forces to attack the homeland of the Byzantine's allies in al-Jazeerah. This forced the allies to abandon the siege to defend their own territory, leaving the Byzantines isolated. Abu Ubaydah then led his forces out of Homs and defeated them. Following this, the Muslim army under Iyad ibn Ghanam peacefully conquered all of al-Jazeerah (Mesopotamia).
The Conquests of Egypt and Libya
With Syria secured, the conquest of Egypt was a strategic necessity to protect the Muslims' southern flank from the Byzantine presence there. Amr ibn al-As led a small army from Palestine into Egypt. His campaign began with the conquest of al-Farma (Pelusium) after a month-long siege. He then advanced to Balbees, where another Byzantine force was defeated.
The Muslims next faced a major battle at Umm Daneen. Facing a large Byzantine army, Amr requested reinforcements. Umar sent four thousand men, led by four elite companions: az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, al-Miqdad ibn al-Aswad, Ubadah ibn as-Samit, and Maslamah ibn Mukhallad, noting that "twelve thousand men will never be defeated for lack of numbers." Amr used brilliant ambush tactics, hiding detachments of his army that emerged during the battle to attack the Byzantine flanks and rear, leading to a complete victory.
The final obstacle was the heavily fortified Fortress of Babaliyon (near modern Cairo). After a seven-month siege, az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam declared he would sacrifice himself for victory. He led a small group to scale the walls at night. Once atop the fortress, he shouted the takbeer, and the main army outside roared in response. The Byzantine defenders, thinking the fortress was already taken, panicked and fled, allowing the Muslims to open the gates and seize the stronghold.
From Babaliyon, Amr marched on Alexandria, the capital of Byzantine Egypt and second city of the empire. The siege was long and difficult. Umar, concerned by the delay, sent a letter urging Amr to renew the army's spiritual focus and to launch a general assault at noon on a Friday, a time of blessing. Amr gave command of the final assault to the veteran companion Ubadah ibn as-Samit, and the city was conquered. Following the fall of Alexandria, Amr expanded westward into Libya in 22 A.H. He conquered Barqah and Tripoli, but Umar ordered him to halt his advance and consolidate the vast new territories under Muslim rule.
Lessons from the Conquests
The conquests revealed the core principles of Islamic rule and warfare. The Muslim envoys, such as Ubadah ibn as-Samit in his negotiations with the Byzantine ruler of Egypt, al-Muqawqis, consistently offered three choices: Islam, jizyah, or war. They demonstrated unwavering faith, disdain for worldly luxury, and a clear sense of purpose that left their opponents awestruck. The claim that Muslims burned the library of Alexandria is dismissed as a later fabrication, absent from all early historical sources. In contrast, Amr ibn al-As showed great respect for the local Coptic Christians, welcoming back their Patriarch Binyameen, who had been persecuted and exiled by the Byzantines.
Umar's method of selecting commanders was based on piety, wisdom, courage, and experience. His letters to his armies served as constitutions, outlining the rights of Allah (patience, sincerity), the rights of the commander (obedience), and the rights of the troops (kindness, provision, rest). He forbade his troops from becoming distracted by farming or trade, ensuring they remained a dedicated fighting force. The result of these conquests was the destruction of one empire (Persia) and the severe crippling of another (Byzantium), replacing them with a single, divinely guided civilization founded on justice, piety, and equality for all peoples.
Analysis of Section 4: The Last Days of 'Umar's Life
Premonitions of the End
The end of Umar's life was preceded by a series of premonitions. In a famous discussion, Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman told Umar that he was like a "closed door" standing between the Muslim community and a wave of tribulations (fitnah). When Umar asked if the door would be opened or broken, Hudhayfah replied that it would be broken, meaning that after Umar's death, the door against civil strife would never be closed again. Umar understood this to mean he would be killed. This knowledge was confirmed by the Prophet himself, who had once stood on Mount Uhud with Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman and, after the mountain shook, told it to be firm, for upon it were a Prophet, a Siddiq (truthful one), and two martyrs.
During his last Hajj pilgrimage, Umar prayed to Allah, saying, "O Allah, I have grown old and weak... Take me in death before I commit any act of neglect." He specifically prayed for martyrdom in the city of the Prophet, a thing his companions found strange, wondering how it could happen in the heart of the Islamic state. Umar himself had a dream in which a rooster pecked him twice, which he interpreted as a sign of his impending death. He announced this to the people in his final Friday sermon, just days before he was killed.
The Assassination of Umar
On Wednesday, the 26th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 23 A.H., Umar went to the mosque to lead the Fajr prayer. As he began the prayer, a Magian (Zoroastrian) slave named Abu Lu'lu'ah Fayrooz stabbed him six times with a two-edged dagger. Abu Lu'lu'ah was a craftsman belonging to the governor al-Mugheerah ibn Shu'bah and held a grudge against Umar, who had recently denied his request for a reduction in the payment he owed his master. After striking the caliph, Abu Lu'lu'ah wildly attacked the worshippers around him, stabbing thirteen men and killing seven before he was caught and killed himself.
As Umar fell, he said, "The dog has killed me!" He took the hand of Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf, who stepped forward and led the people in a brief prayer. Mortally wounded, Umar's first concern was to know his attacker. When told it was the Magian slave, he said, "Praise be to Allah Who has not caused my death to be at the hands of a man who claimed to be a Muslim." This reflected his fear that he might have wronged a Muslim who was now taking revenge, for which he would have to answer to Allah.
The Formation of the Consultative Council (Shoora)
Even in his final moments, bleeding and in immense pain, Umar's focus remained on securing the future of the Muslim ummah. He refused to appoint a single successor, as he felt no one individual was the obvious choice. Instead, he devised a new and unprecedented method: a consultative council, or shoora, to choose the next caliph.
He named six of the most senior companions, all of whom the Prophet was pleased with when he died: Ali ibn Abi Talib, Uthman ibn Affan, Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Talhah ibn Ubaydullah. He laid out a clear process for them. They were to meet and decide within three days. His son, Abdullah, would be present as an advisor but would have no vote. Suhayb ar-Roomi was to lead the prayers during this period. If the council reached a majority decision, the minority was to accept it. In the case of a 3-3 tie, the side that Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf belonged to would make the final choice. He appointed fifty soldiers under Abu Talhah al-Ansari to guard the council and ensure no one interfered, and he commanded that anyone who tried to go against the final consensus should be executed to prevent disunity.
Final Advice and Last Moments
Umar offered comprehensive advice to the caliph who would succeed him. He urged him to fear Allah, to treat the first Muslims (Muhajireen and Ansar) with honor, and to care for the people of the provinces and the deserts. He emphasized justice for the ahl adh-dhimmah (protected non-Muslims), warning not to burden them with more than they could bear. He advised his successor to be strict in upholding Allah’s commands, to treat all people equally, and not to show favoritism to the rich over the poor. He warned against keeping soldiers away on campaigns for too long, depriving them of stipends, or allowing wealth to circulate only among the rich.
His humility and fear of Allah were profound in his final hours. As people praised his life and deeds, he replied, "By Allah, if I had an earthful of gold, I would use it to ransom myself from the punishment of Allah before I saw it." He asked his son to calculate his personal debts, which amounted to around eighty-six thousand dirhams, and instructed that they be paid from his family's wealth, and if not sufficient, from his tribe's, and then from the Quraysh.
His greatest concern was being buried next to his two companions, the Prophet and Abu Bakr. He sent his son Abdullah to Aishah, the Mother of the Believers, to humbly ask for permission, referring to himself not as the Commander of the Faithful but simply as "Umar." Aishah, who had reserved that spot for herself, selflessly gave it up for him. When he died, his head was resting in his son's lap. His last words were, "Woe to me and woe to my mother if Allah does not forgive me."
Legacy and Tributes
The murder of Umar had a profound and devastating effect on the Muslims. Companions wept as if they had lost their dearest child. Ibn Mas'ood said, "Umar was a fortress of Islam... When he died, the fortress was breached, and now people are going out of Islam." Ali ibn Abi Talib, seeing Umar's body, praised him, saying, "There is no one that I would love to meet Allah with deeds like his more than you."
The author refutes the accusation that Ka'b al-Ahbar was part of a conspiracy to kill Umar, arguing that the historical report is weak and illogical, and that the actions of Umar's own son and other companions show that no such suspicion existed at the time.
Umar's legacy was praised by all. Aishah honored his memory by ensuring she was always fully covered whenever she entered the room where he was buried, out of shyness before him. His life was celebrated by later scholars and even non-Muslim orientalists, who recognized him as a man of unique genius, unparalleled justice, and extraordinary ability. He was seen as the true founder of the Islamic state, a wise administrator who established its key institutions, and a leader whose simplicity, piety, and strength of character remain an example for all time.