Part 1:
Rashidun Caliphate
The Genealogy of the Prophet and Caliphs
Genealogists have traced the lineage of the Prophet and the Quraish tribe back to Prophet Adam or Prophet Abraham, but researchers and scholars agree on the genealogy only as far back as Adnan, as there are differences in the records before him. The Prophet himself, as well as Umar ibn Khattab, described their genealogy only up to Adnan. All researchers agree that Adnan's forefather was Prophet Ishmael, the son of Prophet Abraham.
The agreed-upon lineage proceeds from Adnan through Ma'add, Nizar, Mudar, Ilyas, Mudrikah, Khuzaimah, Kinanah, Abu Nadr, Malik, Fihr (known as Quraish), Ghalib, Lu'ayy, and finally to Ka'b.
From Ka'b, the lineage branches. One of his sons, Murrah, is the common ancestor of Prophet Mohammad, Abu Bakr, Ali, and Hasan. Murrah's son was Kilab, whose son was Qusayy, whose son was Abd Manaf. Abd Manaf had two sons of note in this line: Hashim and Abd Shams.
The line of Prophet Mohammad and Ali proceeds from Hashim. Hashim's son was Abd al-Muttalib, who was the father of both Abdullah (the Prophet's father) and Abu Talib (Ali's father). Thus, Prophet Mohammad and Ali were first cousins. Ali's son, Hasan, continued this line.
The line of Usman branches from Abd Manaf's other son, Abd Shams. From Abd Shams came Umayya, then Abu al-As, whose son was Affan, the father of Usman.
The line of Abu Bakr branches from Murrah's other son, Taym. The lineage continues from Taym to Sa'd, to Ka'b, to Amr, to Amir, and then to Abu Quhafa, who was the father of Abu Bakr.
The line of Umar branches from Ka'b's other son, Adiy. The lineage continues from Adiy to Razah, to Qurut, to Abdullah, to Riyah, to Abdul Uzza, to Nufayl, and then to Khattab, who was the father of Umar.
The First Caliph - Abu Bakr Siddiq
The Exalted Status of Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr Siddiq, the first Caliph, is honored as the Caliph of the Prophet and leader of the Mystics. His rank is considered superior to all humans after the Prophets, and he is a guiding light for seekers of Allah. His sincerity was absolute; when Prophet Mohammad announced his Prophethood and later his Miraj, Abu Bakr believed him without hesitation or needing a miracle. For this, he is called the leader of the truthful (siddiqeen), a group ranked second only to the Prophets in the Quran. The Prophet said Abu Bakr's excellence was not due to excessive prayers or fasting, but because of the profound love for the Prophet in his heart. The Prophet also stated, "What Allah inculcated in my inward, I inculcated the same in Abu Bakr's inward," and "If the faith of Abu Bakr is compared with the combined faith of all the people then his faith will be greater and superior."
Many hadiths highlight his glory. The Prophet referred to him and Umar as the leaders of all elders in paradise, besides the Prophets. He called Abu Bakr the kindest in his umma and one of his two ministers on earth, alongside Umar. On one occasion, the Prophet, while holding the hands of Abu Bakr and Umar, said, "We will rise in the same manner on the doomsday." Abu Bakr was also told he would be the Prophet's companion at the pond of Kawthar in paradise. The Prophet emphasized Abu Bakr's unparalleled favor regarding wealth and companionship, stating that if he were to befriend anyone other than Allah, it would have been Abu Bakr. Allah Himself would repay Abu Bakr's favors on the Day of Judgment.
The Prophet held him in such high regard that he ordered all windows opening towards the Prophet's Mosque to be closed, except for Abu Bakr's. Ali ibn Abi Talib affirmed Abu Bakr's status, calling him the bravest of all for fearlessly defending the Prophet with a sword drawn on the day of Badr and when the Quraish attacked the Prophet in Makkah. After Abu Bakr's death, Ali praised him as the first to believe, the most honest in faith, the strongest in belief, and the one who most resembled the Prophet in nature and morals.
Birth, Acceptance of Islam, and Preaching
Abu Bakr was born in 573 AD, two and a half years after the Prophet. His birth name was Abd al-Kaaba, but the Prophet named him Abdullah after he accepted Islam. He belonged to the Banu Taym clan of the Quraish tribe and was an affluent trader.
He had a deep affection for Prophet Mohammad even before Islam. When the Prophet declared his Prophethood, Abu Bakr was out of Makkah but returned immediately and embraced Islam without hesitation, becoming the first adult male to do so. This unwavering belief, without any ambivalence, was unique to him. Soon after, he began persuading his friends and relatives to accept Islam, generously spending his wealth for the cause. Through his efforts, prominent figures like Usman ibn Affan, Az-Zubayr ibn al-Awam, and others who were promised paradise accepted Islam. He also used his wealth to free many Muslim slaves, including Bilal ibn Rabah.
Unwavering Love and Devotion
Abu Bakr's love for the Prophet was boundless. Despite being in the minority, he urged the Prophet to openly invite people to Islam in the Kaaba. When he did so, he was knocked down and beaten severely by the infidels. Upon regaining consciousness, his first words were, "How is Prophet Mohammad?" He refused to eat or drink until he saw the Prophet was safe. This incident led to his mother also accepting Islam.
His devotion was evident in his willingness to sacrifice everything. When his son, Abd al-Rahman, mentioned that he had spared his father's life in the Battle of Badr, Abu Bakr replied that had his son been under his sword, he would have killed him for being an opponent of Islam. During the Expedition of Tabuk, when the Prophet asked for donations, Umar brought half his wealth. Abu Bakr, however, brought everything he owned, humbly replying that "The love of Allah and His Prophet is enough for my family." Upon hearing this, Umar stated he could never outdo Abu Bakr.
The Migration and the Thawr Cave
When Allah ordered the Prophet to migrate from Makkah, Abu Bakr was chosen as his companion. He quickly arranged for provisions and two camels. On the night of the migration, while Ali slept in the Prophet's bed to return the trusts of the Makkans, the Prophet and Abu Bakr headed south to the Thawr Cave. Abu Bakr carried the Prophet on his shoulders over rocky paths and cleaned the cave, blocking holes with pieces of his own garment to protect the Prophet from insects. They stayed in the cave for three days and nights.
The Makkans announced a reward of one hundred camels for the Prophet's head. Stalkers followed their footprints right to the mouth of the cave, but a spider had spun a web over the opening, deceiving the pursuers. Abu Bakr grew anxious, but the Prophet comforted him with the Quranic verse, "Do not grieve. Allah is surely with us." This experience solidified Abu Bakr's faith, and he later said he was never worried about matters of religion again. After three days, they departed for Madina.
Life in Madina and Leadership
After a brief stay in Quba, where Ali joined them, they arrived in Madina. Abu Bakr was hosted by Kharijah bin Zayd. In Madina, he remained the Prophet's closest companion, and his opinions and suggestions were highly valued. He became the Prophet's father-in-law when his daughter Aisha married the Prophet. He fought alongside the Prophet in every major battle, including Badr, Uhad, the Trench, and the Conquest of Makkah, and was once appointed as the chief of the hajj pilgrimage.
He was the greatest scholar among all the companions, possessing the most knowledge of the Quran. Many companions would consult him to verify hadiths, and the Prophet called him the leader of all the companions.
The Prophet's Death and Succession
During the Prophet's final illness, he permanently shifted to Aisha's house. As his condition weakened, he commanded Abu Bakr to lead the prayers in the mosque. Abu Bakr led seventeen prayers during the Prophet's lifetime. After the Prophet passed away, the companions were in a state of shock, and Umar could not believe it. Abu Bakr went to the Prophet's house, kissed his forehead, and then addressed the devastated Muslims in the mosque. He announced the Prophet's death and recited a verse from the Quran confirming that Mohammad was a Messenger and that Messengers before him had also passed away. This brought composure to the community.
When a dispute arose over where to bury the Prophet, Abu Bakr resolved it by stating he had heard the Prophet say that a Prophet is buried at the same place where he passes away. Thus, the Prophet was buried in Aisha's house.
Following the Prophet's death, the issue of succession became critical. To prevent disputes between the Ansar and the emigrants, who had gathered at Saqifah, Abu Bakr wisely addressed them. He acknowledged the services of both groups but stated that the Arabs would only accept leadership from the Quraish. He then proposed they pledge allegiance to either Umar ibn Khattab or Abu Ubaida ibn Jarrah. In response, Umar held Abu Bakr's hand, declared him the best amongst them, and pledged allegiance to him. Everyone present followed, and Abu Bakr was democratically chosen as the first Caliph.
The Caliphate and Key Accomplishments
Abu Bakr's caliphate lasted from June 632 AD to August 634 AD. In his first sermon, he established the principles of his rule, declaring that the weak were strong to him until he secured their rights, and the strong were weak until he took the people's rights from them. He asked the people to obey him only as long as he obeyed Allah and His Prophet.
His first act was to dispatch the army prepared by the Prophet under Usama ibn Zayd, despite the precarious situation in Madina, stating he could not stop the orders of the Prophet. The expedition was successful and strengthened the Muslims. He then faced the Apostasy Wars, sending troops to crush false prophets like Musaylimah. He also stood firm against tribes that refused to pay zakat, declaring he would fight for it even if it were equivalent to a small piece of rope.
He focused on external threats from the Roman and Persian empires. Muslim forces under Khalid ibn Walid and Muthanna ibn Haritha achieved major successes against the Persians in Iraq, capturing most of the region. He also organized the Islamic army into four divisions to confront the Romans in Syria. Abu Bakr laid the foundation for the world's first Islamic, welfare, and democratic state, where even a common citizen could hold the Caliph accountable. He also established a military code of conduct that emphasized just treatment of enemies, civilians, and the environment.
Character, Legacy, and Death
Abu Bakr was a simple, honest, and humble man. He was an affluent businessman but died with no wealth, having spent it all for Islam. He bequeathed nothing. As he was dying, he instructed that his personal property be sold to return the six thousand dirhams he had taken as an allowance from the treasury during his caliphate. His only remaining belongings, a horse and a piece of cloth, were also sent to the treasury. Upon seeing this, Umar cried and said, "O Abu Bakr! You have set the bar so high that it has put people following you into a trial."
In Sufism, he is the leader of the truthful, and the Naqshbandi spiritual order traces its origins to him. It is said that any spiritual seeker, regardless of their order, requires his spiritual attention to gain truthfulness.
Abu Bakr fell ill on 7th Jumada ath-thani 13 AH and passed away fifteen days later at the age of sixty-three. Per his will, his coffin was taken to the Prophet's tomb to seek permission for burial. Ali narrated that the door of the tomb opened and a voice was heard saying, "Let the lover meet the beloved, verily the beloved is eager to meet the lover too." He was then buried beside the Prophet.
The Second Caliph - Umar Ibn Khattab
Introduction and Conversion to Islam
Umar ibn Khattab, the second Rashidun Caliph, was known as a just ruler and the Commander of the Believers. He was given the title al-Farooq by the Prophet, meaning the one who distinguishes between right and wrong. Born in Makkah in 583 AD, his genealogy meets the Prophet's in the eighth generation.
His conversion was a direct answer to a prayer from Prophet Mohammad, who asked Allah to strengthen Islam through either Umar or Amr ibn Hisham (Abu Jahl). One day, Umar left his home with a sword, intending to kill the Prophet. On his way, he was told that his own sister, Fatimah, and her husband had accepted Islam. Furious, he went to her house and struck her, causing her to bleed. Seeing her fearless resolve, he relented and asked to see the Quranic verses they were reciting. After purifying himself, he read a verse from sura Taha and was immediately moved. He went to the house of al-Arqam, met the Prophet, and embraced Islam. Upon his conversion, Angel Gabriel informed the Prophet that the dwellers of the heavens had celebrated. His acceptance of Islam was a great victory, allowing Muslims for the first time to preach openly and offer prayer in the Kaaba.
Companionship with the Prophet
After accepting Islam, Umar dedicated his life to the Prophet's service. He was present at every major event, from the migration to Madina to the Battle of Badr, Uhad, the Conquest of Makkah, and the Battle of Hunayn. He was one of the Prophet's two chief consultants, along with Abu Bakr, and the Prophet often said that if both of them agreed on a matter, he would not disapprove of it.
Umar's love for the Prophet was so intense that upon hearing of his death, he went into a state of disbelief, announcing that the Prophet had only gone to meet Allah like Moses and would return. He was brought back to reality by Abu Bakr's sermon. This reaction was seen not just as an emotional outburst but as a reflection of his belief in the Prophet's eternal spiritual life.
Caliphate and Major Achievements
Umar played a key role in the caliphate of Abu Bakr, persuading the people to pledge allegiance to him. Before his death, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor. Umar took over the caliphate in August 634 AD. He refused the title 'Caliph of the Caliph of the Prophet' and, on the suggestion of Ali ibn Abi Talib, adopted the title Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers).
His reign marked the establishment of the first modern, social, economic, and democratic state. He created a formal consultation committee (Majlis-e-Shura), a treasury, and an accountability bureau. He founded a professional army with cantonments, an intelligence bureau, and a judicial system with courtrooms and appointed judges, with Ali as the Chief Justice. Umar also introduced a separate Islamic calendar, the prison system, the police department, and conducted the first census. His government was responsible for orphans and homeless children, established an education system with allowances for teachers, and constructed lodges and guest houses for travelers.
Expansion of the Islamic Empire
During Umar's ten-year reign, the Islamic Empire expanded at an unparalleled rate, conquering over a thousand cities and covering twenty-five lakh square miles. He conquered the two superpowers of the time, the Persian and Roman Empires. Territories brought under his rule included Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Syria, Jerusalem, Azerbaijan, Armenia, parts of modern-day Turkey, Libya, and Sudan. The conquest of Jerusalem was a unique victory; seeing Umar arrive wearing patched clothes while his slave rode the camel, the priests handed over the keys to the al-Aqsa Mosque. His just rule and high morals inspired numerous people in these conquered lands to embrace Islam.
Justice, Accountability, and Compassion
Umar's system of justice and accountability was incomparable. He often said, "Hold yourself accountable before you are held accountable." He held his governors to the strictest standards, ensuring they served the public and lived modestly. When a complaint was filed against the governor of Egypt, Amr ibn al-As, for his son striking an Egyptian, Umar summoned them both to Madina and had the Egyptian publicly strike the governor's son in return, famously telling the governor, "Since when you started treating humans like slaves. Humans are born independent from the womb of their mothers."
He himself lived in indigence, once apologizing for being late to a Friday prayer because he was waiting for his only shirt to dry after washing it. He was famous for patrolling the streets at night to check on the condition of his people. In one such patrol, he found a woman boiling a pot of water to trick her hungry children into thinking food was being cooked. He immediately went to the treasury, carried a sack of flour and essentials on his own back, and cooked a meal for the family himself. His compassion extended to non-Muslims as well; he dropped the jizya (tax) for an old, blind Jewish man he found begging and ordered that all old and needy non-Muslims be cared for from the treasury. He also established allowances for all newborn children from birth.
Miracles and Divine Inspiration
Umar was known to be a man of Divine inspiration, and many Quranic verses were revealed in accordance with his opinions, particularly regarding the veil for women, the prohibition of alcohol, and taking the station of Abraham as a place of prayer. He was also credited with several miracles. Once, while delivering a sermon in Madina, he miraculously saw his army facing difficulty in a battle at Nahavand. He loudly called out, "O Sariyah! Head towards the mountain!" His voice was heard by the commander, who followed the instruction and won the battle. In another incident, he wrote a letter to the river Nile, which had stopped flowing, commanding it to flow by Allah's will, which it then did.
The Prophet held Umar in the highest esteem, stating, "If there was to be a Prophet after me, it would have been Umar." He also said that Satan would change his path if he came across Umar.
Legacy and Martyrdom
Umar's spiritual beneficence, particularly his traits of justice and self-accountability, continues to influence the seekers of Faqr. The Uwaisi spiritual order initiated from him.
In 23 AH, while leading the dawn prayer, Umar was attacked and stabbed with a venomous dagger by an infidel named Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz. He passed away on the 1st of Muharram, 24 AH. Before his death, he requested permission from Aisha to be buried in the tomb of the Prophet. She had saved the spot for herself but gave it to Umar. He was buried in the Prophet's Mosque, next to the Prophet and Abu Bakr.
The Third Caliph - Usman Ibn Affan
Introduction, Titles, and Conversion
Usman ibn Affan, the third righteous Caliph, was born in Makkah, and his genealogy meets that of Prophet Mohammad in the fifth generation. He held two famous titles: Ghani, meaning rich and generous, for liberally donating his wealth for the cause of Islam, and Du an-Nurayn, meaning "the possessor of two lights," because he had the unique honor of marrying two of the Prophet's daughters, Ruqayyah and, after her death, Umm Kulthum.
Usman embraced Islam at an early stage through the invitation of Abu Bakr. When the Prophet happened to pass by during their conversation, he said, "Usman! Accept the invitation to the paradise. I am sent as a Messenger of Allah towards you and all the creation." Usman immediately converted. As a result, his uncle imprisoned and assaulted him, demanding he revert to his old religion, but Usman remained firm in his new faith and was eventually released.
Migrations and Modesty
Usman is also known as Sahib al-Hijratain, or the "Man of Two Migrations," as he migrated first to Ethiopia with his wife Ruqayyah and later to Madina. The Prophet said, "Verily! Usman is the first person after Lut who has migrated along with his wife in the way of Allah."
His greatest virtue was his modesty, a quality so profound that even the angels regarded him for it. He was so modest that he never undressed, even in privacy. The Prophet himself would adjust his posture and clothing upon Usman's arrival out of respect for his modesty, something he did not do for other companions. He once explained, "Why should I not regard the person whom even the angels regard."
Devotion to the Prophet and Unparalleled Generosity
Usman's devotion to the Prophet was absolute. When he was sent to Makkah to negotiate what would become the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the Quraish offered him the chance to circumambulate the Kaaba. He refused, stating, "I will not perform circumambulation until my beloved, Prophet Mohammad, is able to do it." During this time, a rumor of his martyrdom spread, and the Prophet took a pledge from the companions. Since Usman was absent, the Prophet placed his own hand upon his other hand and said, "This is the hand of Usman and I pledge on his behalf," an honor given to no one else.
As a wealthy man, Usman's generosity was legendary. During the Expedition of Tabuk, he donated, in stages, a total of nine hundred laden camels and a thousand gold coins. The Prophet was so pleased that he said, "From today onwards, no action of Usman can harm him," adding that Allah had forgiven all his past and future sins. During a severe drought in Madina, he donated a thousand grain-laden camels to the poor. He also purchased the only sweet water well in Madina, Bi'r Roomah, from a Jew and donated it for public use so Muslims would not have to pay for water.
Caliphate and Major Achievements
After Umar's martyrdom, a consultation committee of six companions chose Usman as the third Caliph in November 644 AD. During his reign, the Islamic empire continued to expand, stretching from North Africa to the borders of China and India. He oversaw the establishment of the first Muslim navy under the governor of Syria, Ameer Muawiya, which defeated the Byzantine naval forces and led to the conquest of Cyprus.
Usman took several steps for public welfare, including reconstructing and extending the Prophet's Mosque, increasing the stipends for Muslims, and allocating funds for the needy during Ramadan. His single greatest religious service was establishing a standard version of the Quran. To resolve differences in pronunciation that were arising across the expanding empire, he had copies made from the original script compiled under Abu Bakr and distributed them to all Islamic countries, annulling all other versions. This act united Muslims worldwide on a single, standard recitation of the holy book.
Rebellion and Sedition
The first five years of Usman's caliphate were peaceful and prosperous. However, this prosperity led to a growing lust for wealth and power among some. This, combined with Usman's lenient and kind nature, created an opportunity for dissent. The biggest enemy of Islam at this time was a Jew pretending to be a Muslim named Abdullah ibn Saba. He traveled through Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, spreading propaganda that Usman had usurped the caliphate from Ali and was misusing his power. His followers, the Saba'iyya, created widespread sedition.
The rebels accused Usman of appointing inexperienced family members to high posts and misusing the treasury, accusations he refuted by explaining he only gave to relatives from his own personal wealth. The situation escalated, and in 35 AH, groups of rebels from Egypt, Kufa, and Basra marched on Madina.
Siege and Martyrdom
The rebels besieged Usman's house, cutting off his water supply and preventing anyone from entering. Despite the willingness of companions like Husayn ibn Ali and Abdullah ibn Zubayr to fight, Usman forbade any bloodshed in the sacred city of the Prophet, stating he did not want to be the successor responsible for Muslims killing each other. He refused to leave Madina for the safety of Syria, saying he would not leave the land where the Prophet resided. From his rooftop, he reminded the rebels of his services to Islam, but they were not swayed.
On a Friday, while he was fasting, Usman had a dream in which the Prophet told him, "You will break your fast with us tomorrow." Knowing his end was near, he wore trousers for the first time in his life (out of modesty, so he would not be exposed during martyrdom), freed twenty slaves, and began reciting the Quran. The rebels broke into his house, and one struck his forehead with an iron rod, causing his blood to fall on the holy book. Another rebel stabbed him multiple times, martyring him. This occurred on 18th Dhul al-Hijjah 35 AH. His body lay unattended for two days due to the rebels' control of the city, before Ali and a few other companions secretly buried him at night.
Aftermath and Legacy
The assassination of Usman had a dreadful impact on the future of Islam, shattering Muslim unity and leading to divisions and sects that persist to this day. Companions were devastated; Ali declared himself absolved of the murder, and Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman said Usman's death left a vacuum that even mountains could not fill. In Sufism, Usman is considered a leader of the enduring Mystics, and the Usmaniyya spiritual order originates from him. His spiritual beneficence, particularly the attributes of modesty and humility, continues to influence all spiritual orders.
The Fourth Caliph - Ali Ibn Abi Talib
Early Life and Conversion
Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Mohammad. Born inside the Kaaba, he was a noble Hashemite from both his father's and mother's side. Due to his father Abu Talib's financial struggles, the Prophet, after his own marriage to Khadija, took responsibility for Ali's upbringing. Ali was thus raised from a young age under the Prophet's direct affection and guidance. His titles include Asadullah (Lion of God), Haidar (the ferocious lion), Murtaza (the chosen one), and Abu Turab (father of soil), a name given to him by the Prophet after finding him sleeping on the dusty ground of the mosque.
As a child of ten, Ali saw the Prophet and Khadija praying and, upon inquiring, was invited to the faith. He accepted Islam immediately. When the Prophet was commanded to warn his relatives, he hosted a feast. After his message was met with scorn, only the young Ali stood up and fearlessly pledged his support, declaring, "O Messenger of Allah! I will help you and fight with whoever fights you."
Devotion in the Prophet's Life
Ali's life was a testament to his love for the Prophet. On the night of the migration from Makkah, Ali slept in the Prophet's bed as a decoy for the assassins who had surrounded the house, a task he accepted willingly despite the mortal danger. He then faithfully returned the trusts that Makkans had left with the Prophet before making his own arduous journey to Madina on foot.
In 2 AH, the Prophet gave Ali his youngest and most beloved daughter, Fatimah, in marriage. Due to his poverty, Ali's mehr was his armor, which Usman ibn Affan purchased and then gifted back to him. Their life together was one of simplicity and hardship, yet filled with piety.
Ali's bravery in battle was legendary. In the Battle of Badr, he defeated the champion Walid ibn Utbah. In the Battle of Uhad, when the Muslim army fell into chaos, Ali fiercely defended the Prophet from waves of attackers. On that day, Angel Gabriel praised his valor, and the Prophet declared, "Ali is from me and I am from Ali." In the Battle of the Trench, he single-handedly defeated the formidable Arab warrior Amr ibn Abd al-Wud. His greatest military feat was the Conquest of Khaybar, where the Prophet, after others had failed, miraculously cured Ali's eye ailment with his saliva and gave him the flag. Ali defeated Khaybar's champion, Marhab, and tore the fortress gate from its hinges to secure victory.
Role During the First Three Caliphates
Ali pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and served as a chief counsellor and scriber during his caliphate, supporting him in all matters of state. During the caliphate of Umar, he was a key member of the consultation committee and was appointed Chief Justice of the state. Umar held Ali in such high regard that he married Ali's daughter, Umm Kulthum. Ali's relationships with the first three Caliphs were based on mutual respect and cooperation for the good of the Muslim umma.
Ascension to Caliphate and the Great Fitna
After the assassination of Usman, Madina was in chaos. The companions and rebels alike urged Ali to accept the caliphate, but he initially refused, preferring to be a vizier rather than a ruler. However, facing the threat of total anarchy, he was compelled to accept the responsibility in 35 AH to restore order.
His caliphate was immediately consumed by the "First Fitna" (civil war), as the demand for retribution for Usman's murder grew. This led to the Battle of the Camel, where an army led by Aisha, Talhah, and Zubayr confronted Ali's forces near Basra. After attempts at reconciliation were sabotaged by the actual murderers of Usman, who instigated fighting at night, a tragic battle ensued. Zubayr withdrew after Ali reminded him of a prophecy, but was treacherously killed by a pursuer. Talhah was also killed by a stray arrow. Ali's forces were victorious, and he treated Aisha with the utmost respect, ensuring her safe return to Makkah.
The conflict continued with Muawiya, the governor of Syria and relative of Usman, who refused to pledge allegiance and demanded retribution. This led to the Battle of Siffin in 37 AH. As Ali's army was on the verge of victory, Muawiya's forces raised copies of the Quran on their spears, calling for arbitration. Ali's soldiers, particularly the Kufans, compelled him to accept, against his better judgment. The subsequent arbitration was deceitful; the arbitrator for Muawiya's side tricked Ali's arbitrator, leading to a verdict that established Muawiya's rule in Syria and effectively split the caliphate.
The Kharijites and Martyrdom
A group of Ali's own supporters, who had forced him to accept arbitration, later condemned him for doing so, declaring that "rulership belongs to Allah alone." They seceded from his army and became known as the Kharijites. This extremist sect declared both Ali and Muawiya to be infidels. After they committed brutal acts of violence, Ali was forced to fight and defeat them at the Battle of Nahrawan.
In Ramadan of 40 AH, a Kharijite survivor named Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam attacked Ali with a poison-coated sword as he was entering the mosque in Kufa for the dawn prayer. Ali passed away from the wound two days later. In his final moments, he instructed that his killer be executed with a single strike and forbade any mutilation or further bloodshed.
Character, Knowledge, and Spiritual Legacy
Ali was an embodiment of the Prophet's virtues. The Prophet declared, "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its door." His collection of sermons, Nahj al-Balagha, is a masterpiece of Arabic literature. He was a master of Islamic jurisprudence, a renowned poet, and a man of unparalleled wisdom.
His life was marked by extreme asceticism and simplicity. He often ate only dry barley bread with salt or water and owned only the simplest of clothes. He viewed the world as a "carrion" to be avoided. He was profoundly devoted to worship, spending his nights in prayer, and his humility and fear of Allah were immense. Despite his own poverty, he was incredibly generous, and his forgiveness was extended even to his enemies.
Spiritually, Ali is known as the "Door of Faqr" and the heir to the Prophet's esoteric trust. The Prophet taught him the path of invocation and declared him the "guide" for all seekers of the right path. Fourteen major Sufi orders trace their lineage back to him through his four spiritual successors: his sons Hasan and Husayn, Shaikh Hasan of Basra, and Kumayl ibn Ziyad. Through these orders, his spiritual beneficence continues to flow to the Muslim umma.
The Fifth Caliph - Hasan Ibn Ali
Exalted Status as the Prophet's Grandson
Hasan ibn Ali, the eldest son of Ali and Fatimah, was the fifth and final Rashidun Caliph. Prophet Mohammad held both Hasan and his brother Husayn in the highest esteem, expressing equal love for them. He called them "the two flowers of my garden" and the "leaders of the youth of paradise." The Prophet declared, "Hasan and Husayn are from me," testifying to their deep spiritual and physical resemblance to him. It was said that Hasan's face resembled the Prophet's, while Husayn resembled the Prophet from the chest down. The Prophet performed their birth rituals, named them, and often let them ride on his shoulders and play in his lap. Their equal status was so profound that in one story, when asked to judge whose handwriting was better, the Prophet deferred the decision to Allah. An apple sent from heaven then split into two equal halves, one landing on each of their wooden boards, signifying their equal worth.
Birth, Name, and Upbringing
Hasan was born in Madina on the 15th of Ramadan, 3 AH. The Prophet named him Hasan and gave him the teknonym Abu Mohammad. His titles include Mujtaba (the chosen one) and Shabeeh-e-Rasool (the one who resembled the Prophet). At his birth, the Prophet recited the azan in his right ear and the takbir in his left, put his sacred saliva in the newborn's mouth, and performed his aqiqah on the seventh day. Hasan spent his first six years under the direct, loving attention of the Prophet, and was then nurtured by his sacred mother Fatimah and his father Ali, ingraining in him the highest virtues.
Character and Virtues
Hasan was a man of immense piety and outstanding character.
Fear of Allah: When preparing for salat, his body would tremble and his face would turn pale out of awe for standing in Allah's court. He performed the pilgrimage from Madina to Makkah on foot, saying he felt embarrassed to go to Allah's court on a ride.
Forbearance: His arch-enemy, Marwan, who used to torment him, wept bitterly at his death, admitting that Hasan's forbearance was "as strong as the mountains." In a famous incident, a slave accidentally dropped a bowl of hot curry on him. The slave nervously recited a Quranic verse about sublimating anger, and Hasan replied, "I have sublimated my anger." The slave continued with the verse about tolerating faults, and Hasan said, "I forgave you." The slave finished with the part about Allah loving the benevolent, at which point Hasan said, "Go! I have freed you."
Spiritual Station (Faqr): Hasan reached the ultimate spiritual station where "Faqr is accomplished, that is Allah." He was a master of Sufism's subtle facts, and even a great Mystic like Hasan of Basra would consult him on delicate matters like destiny.
Wisdom: His intelligence was renowned. Once, his father Ali asked for his judgment in a case where two men confessed to the same murder. The true killer had confessed to save an innocent man who was wrongly accused. Hasan wisely advised forgiving the murderer, citing a Quranic verse that saving one life is like saving all of humanity.
Generosity and Bravery: He never turned away a beggar, once saying, "I myself am a beggar in Allah's court. I feel ashamed to return a needy empty-handed." He was also a brave warrior who fought valiantly in the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin and was one of the few who stood guard to protect Usman ibn Affan during his siege.
Caliphate and Abdication
After Ali's martyrdom in 40 AH, the Muslims of Kufa pledged allegiance to Hasan as the next Caliph. Meanwhile, the Syrians pledged allegiance to Ameer Muawiya. To avoid another civil war and the shedding of Muslim blood, Hasan chose peace. Five months and ten days into his rule, in Rabi al-Awwal 41 AH, he withdrew from the caliphate.
This act fulfilled two prophecies of the Prophet. First, it completed the thirty-year period of the "rightly guided caliphate" that the Prophet had foretold. Second, it fulfilled the Prophet's words, "My son is a noble, because of him the conflict between two Muslim groups will come to an end." Hasan's abdication separated the physical caliphate (governance) from the spiritual caliphate (Faqr), a separation that has remained ever since. He withdrew on the conditions that the people of Iraq would be safe and that his father, Ali, would not be slandered.
Death and Legacy
After abdicating, Hasan returned to Madina and dedicated his life to religious activities. He died in 49 AH after being poisoned. When his brother Husayn asked him to name the assassin, Hasan refused. He said that if his suspicion was correct, Allah would be a sufficient punisher, and if it was incorrect, he did not want an innocent person to be arrested. He chose to prevent another cycle of conflict and retribution.
The entire city of Madina mourned his death, and he was buried in Jannat al-Baqi. Hasan had five daughters and twelve sons, four of whom—Abu Bakr, Umar, Abdullah, and Qasim—were martyred in the Battle of Karbala. The claims made by enemies that he had numerous wives are false and inconsistent with his seventeen children and the Islamic limit of four wives, as such a thing would have required him to engage in the abominable act of repeated divorce. His life remains a source of strength and success for those who venerate the beloveds of the Prophet.
The Death of the Prophet
In the midsummer of 632, ten years after the Hijra to Medina, the Prophet of Arabia passed away at the age of sixty-three. His final illness lasted only thirteen days. On the morning of his death, he felt strong enough to rise and draw aside the curtain to his apartment, looking into the court of the Great Mosque where Abu Bekr was leading the early prayer in his place. Seeing his master seemingly improved, Abu Bekr received permission to visit his wife in the city's upper suburb. Soon after, the Prophet’s strength failed, and he died in the arms of his favorite wife, 'Aisha.
Rumors of his death quickly spread, and the Mosque filled with bewildered followers. Among them, 'Omar passionately declared that the Prophet was not dead but in a trance, from which he would soon rise. Abu Bekr hurried back, and after confirming the Prophet’s death, he went out and addressed the crowd with the memorable words: "Whoso worshippeth Mohammad, let him know that Mohammad is dead; but whoso worshippeth God, let him know that God liveth and dieth not." Hearing these words and a recitation from the Kor'an, 'Omar was struck speechless, realizing with certainty that Mohammad was indeed dead.
The Election of the First Caliph
As the assembly quieted down, a messenger arrived with urgent news: the men of Medina had gathered to choose a ruler from among themselves. Realizing the immediate threat to the unity of Islam, Abu Bekr and 'Omar, accompanied by Abu 'Obeida, went at once to the assembly hall. There, the men of Medina, composed of the rival Aus and Khazraj tribes, were on the verge of electing Sa'd ibn 'Obada, the chief of the Khazraj, as their leader.
The men of Medina proposed a compromise: two rulers, one for them and one for the Meccan Koreish. Abu Bekr firmly rejected this, arguing that the leadership of the Arabs must remain with the tribe of Koreish. As the debate grew heated, 'Omar took the initiative. He seized Abu Bekr's hand and pledged his allegiance, followed immediately by Abu 'Obeida. Seeing this, the Aus tribe, jealous of the rival Khazraj, quickly followed suit. Soon, the entire assembly gave their homage to Abu Bekr, saluting him as the Caliph, or Successor, of the Prophet.
Abu Bekr's Inaugural Address
After the Prophet was buried in 'Aisha's apartment, Abu Bekr ascended the pulpit in the Great Mosque and was formally acknowledged as Caliph. He then delivered his inaugural address, stating: "Oh people! Now I am Ruler over you, albeit not the best amongst you. If I do well, support me; if ill, then set me right. The weaker amongst you shall be as the stronger with me, until that I shall have redressed his wrong; and the stronger shall be as the weaker until I shall have taken from him that which he hath wrested. Obey me as I obey the Lord and his Prophet; wherein I disobey, obey me not."
The Aftermath of Succession
'Ali initially refrained from pledging homage to Abu Bekr. This delay was not due to a personal claim to the Caliphate, but rather a grievance held by his wife Fatima, the Prophet’s last surviving daughter. Fatima had claimed her father's share in the crown lands of Kheibar, but Abu Bekr disallowed it, stating the revenues were for state purposes as Mohammad himself had desired. Fatima was deeply hurt by this and remained distant from the Caliph until her death a short time later, after which 'Ali gave his cordial recognition to Abu Bekr. The Prophet had no surviving sons, but his two grandsons, Al-Hasan and Al-Hosein, were left by Fatima.
Key Figures of the Succession
The future of Islam at this critical moment rested on three key Companions. Abu Bekr, at sixty years old, was slight in stature with a mild but resolute expression; his faith in the Prophet was absolute. 'Omar, fifteen years younger, was tall and commanding with a hasty temperament mellowed by time and his attachment to Mohammad. The third, Abu 'Obeida, was mild, unassuming, and unwarlike, yet was destined to play a leading role in the conquest of Syria.
Mohammad's Final Command
Abu Bekr quickly demonstrated his resolve to carry out Mohammad's will in all matters. Just before his final illness, the Prophet had ordered an expedition to the Syrian border to avenge the defeat at Muta three years prior. To mark this purpose, he appointed Usama, the young son of his friend Zeid who had been killed in that battle, to lead the army. The force had assembled at Jurf, outside Medina, but returned to the city when the Prophet died.
The day after his inauguration, Abu Bekr restored the banner to Usama and ordered the army to reassemble at Jurf, commanding that not a single fighting man be left behind. The army obeyed, but there was a strong sense that leaving the city defenseless was a mistake. Rumors of disloyalty were spreading across the land, and the horizon looked dark for Islam.
Abu Bekr's Unwavering Resolve
'Omar was chosen to represent the army's concerns to Abu Bekr. He urged the new Caliph to cancel the expedition or, if it must proceed, to appoint a more experienced general. Abu Bekr was unmoved. He replied, "Were the City swarming round with packs of ravening wolves and I left solitary and alone, the force should go; not a word from my Master's lips shall fall to the ground." When pressed to change the commander, the Caliph grew angry, seized 'Omar by the beard, and refused to depose a man appointed by the Prophet himself.
When the army was ready to march, Abu Bekr accompanied them a short way on foot. When Usama offered to dismount, Abu Bekr declined, saying he would "soil my feet a little moment in the ways of the Lord." Before returning to Medina, he asked for and received Usama's permission to have 'Omar remain behind to provide him with counsel.
A Successful Raid
Usama's expedition was intended to avenge his father's death upon the tribe of Ghassan. He did, in fact, kill the man responsible. The force ultimately attacked the tribe of Kodaa, reaching Obna, near the Mediterranean coast between Askelon and Jaffa. The entire campaign lasted about one or two months and was little more than a raid. Usama returned to Wadi al-Kora victorious, without having lost a single man.
Widespread Apostasy
With Medina's main fighting force away on the Syrian expedition, news of the Prophet's death spread rapidly, igniting widespread rebellion across Arabia. Three prominent figures declared themselves prophets: Al-Aswad in Yemen, Museilima in Al-Yemama, and Toleiha in the northeast. Throughout the provinces, representatives of Islam were expelled, and the faithful were sometimes massacred. Mecca and At-Taif, under the strong influence of the Koreish, remained loyal, but they were isolated exceptions.
The Bedouin tribes, in particular, chafed under the obligations of Islam. The payment of the tithe was hateful to them, and the Prophet's death provided an opportunity to cast off these restraints and return to their lawless ways. The report of 'Amr, returning from Oman, painted a grim picture of a peninsula in open apostasy, filling the citizens of Medina with dismay.
The Threat to Medina
As reports of new defections arrived daily, Abu Bekr could only instruct his scattered officers to hold their ground until Usama’s army returned. For the immediate defense of Medina, he called in loyal neighboring tribes and posted pickets at the city’s approaches, placing them under the command of the few remaining leaders: 'Ali, Talha, and Az-Zubeir.
The first direct threat came from the turbulent clans of the nearby desert. The Beni 'Abs and Dhubyan tribes massed in large numbers at Ar-Rabadha and Dhu'l-Kassa. They sent a delegation to Medina offering a compromise: they would continue to follow Islamic rituals if they were excused from the tithe. Abu Bekr indignantly rejected their offer, declaring, "If ye withhold but the tether of a tithed camel, I will fight you for it."
The Attack and Repulse
Having learned of Medina's weakened defenses, the insurgents attempted a surprise attack from Dhu'l-Kassa three days later. The city's outposts were alert and held the assailants at bay while the main guard rushed from the Mosque on camels. The Bedouins were unprepared for the warm reception and fled. In their retreat, they inflated their waterskins and threw them before the Muslim camels, a stratagem which caused the animals to take fright and flee back to the city.
Emboldened, the rebels planned another assault. Anticipating this, Abu Bekr gathered every man capable of bearing arms. Before dawn the next morning, he personally led the small force out in battle formation. The enemy was taken completely by surprise and was in full flight by sunrise. Abu Bekr pursued them out of Dhu'l-Kassa with great slaughter, leaving a small outpost there before returning to Medina.
The Significance of Victory
Although the battle was small, its effect was immense. Failure would have been fatal to Islam, but victory became a turning point. News of the Caliph's ability to defend the city, even without his main army, spread abroad. Shortly after, chiefs from the Beni Temim and Beni Tai' arrived bringing their tithes, which was seen as a sign of brighter days to come. Tradition attributes the preservation of Islam to the faith and fortitude of Abu Bekr, whose response to the apostates was simply "Submission, Exile, or the Sword." Without his refusal to compromise, Islam might have dissolved among the Bedouin tribes or perished entirely.
The Chastisement of the Rebels
When Usama finally returned from his successful foray, Medina was relieved from immediate danger. Abu Bekr then lost no time in following up on his recent victory over the insurgents. The rebels who had been driven back from Dhu'l Kassa had retreated to Ar-Rabadha, where they had murdered some faithful Muslims. Moved by their fate, Abu Bekr swore an oath to destroy an equal or greater number of the rebels in the same manner.
Leaving Usama in command of the city, Abu Bekr led a small force out in person, despite the protests of his chief men. He marched on Ar-Rabadha, defeated the rebels, and confiscated their pasture-lands for the state. The remnants of the defeated Beni 'Abs and Dhubyan tribes fled to join the false prophet Toleiha.
The Campaign to Reclaim Arabia
With Medina now secure, the Caliph turned his attention to the great burden of reclaiming the entire peninsula. Faith was vanishing, and most of Arabia was relapsing into apostasy. In fulfillment of Mohammad's deathbed wish that there should be no second creed in the land, Abu Bekr resolved that the false prophets must be crushed and the apostates reclaimed or exterminated.
To achieve this, he summoned all available forces to Dhu'l Kassa and divided them into eleven independent columns. He appointed a distinguished leader over each, presenting them with a banner and assigning each a specific region of Arabia to reclaim. Khalid was sent to subdue Toleiha; 'Ikrima and Shurahbil were dispatched against Museilima; Al-Muhajir was sent to Yemen; Al-'Ala to Al-Bahrein; Hodheifa to Mahra; and 'Amr against the Beni Koda'a.
The Caliph's Ultimatum
After dispatching the armies, Abu Bekr returned to Medina and issued a summons to all apostate tribes. He commanded them to repent and submit to Islam, offering a full pardon to those who complied. For those who refused, the proclamation warned that they would be attacked, their fighting men would be killed, and their women and children would be taken captive. The official test of faith was to be the Azan, or Call to Prayer; if it was heard and responded to, the people would be spared.
Abu Bekr never again left Medina to lead his troops. From his central position in the capital, he was able to direct the movements of his commanders across the entire peninsula. He chose not to appoint the most distinguished Companions, like 'Ali or Az-Zubeir, to any chief commands, preferring to keep them by his side for counsel.
Campaign Against Toleiha
The effort to reclaim Arabia took a full year of hard fighting. The campaigns began with Khalid, known as the "Sword of the Lord," advancing against the false prophet Toleiha in the north. Toleiha had gathered a multitude of followers, whose rebellion was fueled by a mix of spiritual fervor, jealousy of Mecca and Medina, and impatience with the rules of Islam. 'Oyeina, a powerful chieftain, joined Toleiha with 700 warriors, arguing that a prophet from their own confederacy was better than one from the Koreish.
As Khalid advanced, he first sent the loyal chief 'Adi to detach his tribe, the Beni Tai', from Toleiha's cause. Alarmed by 'Adi's warning of an approaching army, the tribe negotiated a three-day halt for Khalid's forces, during which they withdrew their men and joined the Muslim army with 1,000 horsemen. At the subsequent Battle of Buzakha, the fighting was fierce until Toleiha's prophetic authority crumbled. When 'Oyeina repeatedly asked if a divine message had come, Toleiha eventually fabricated a nonsensical revelation. 'Oyeina, disgusted, cried out, "Away with thee!" and led his men away, causing the rebel army to flee.
Toleiha escaped to Syria but later embraced Islam and became a renowned hero in the Persian wars. The defeated tribes, including the Beni Asad, submitted and were pardoned, on the condition that they hand over anyone who had killed a Muslim during the apostasy. These individuals were subjected to the same cruel deaths they had inflicted on their victims. Khalid then crushed a remaining body of malcontents led by the chieftainess Um Ziml, who was slain in battle after her camel was disabled. Her captured leaders, including 'Oyeina, were sent to Medina, where Abu Bekr forgave them.
The Discomfiture of the Beni Temim and the Fate of Malik ibn Nuweira
Having subdued the northern tribes, Khalid marched east against the Beni Temim. Their allegiance had been complicated by the arrival of a prophetess named Sajah, who led a host from Mesopotamia. Malik ibn Nuweira, a famous chief of the Beni Yerbū' clan, allied with her. After some indecisive fighting against other clans of the Beni Temim, Sajah departed for Al-Yemama to confront the prophet Museilima, leaving Malik in a precarious position.
As Khalid's victorious army approached, most of the Beni Temim submitted. Malik, however, remained undecided. He told his people to disperse to their homes, believing they would be safe if they offered no resistance and responded to the call to prayer. Khalid, however, was bent on treating them as enemies. His forces captured Malik, his wife Leila, and some of his people. Following a dispute among his men over whether Malik's party had resisted, Khalid remanded them under guard. During the cold night, Khalid gave an ambiguous command "to wrap the prisoners," which in one dialect meant "to slay." The guard acted on the deadly interpretation, and Malik and the other prisoners were executed.
The act caused a scandal. Abu Katada, a citizen of Medina, accused Khalid directly and left the army in protest. In Medina, 'Omar passionately took up the cause, especially after Khalid married Malik's beautiful widow on the spot. 'Omar demanded that Khalid be degraded, calling him a murderer and adulterer. Abu Bekr, however, refused to sheathe the "Sword of the Lord." He summoned Khalid, chided him for the scandalous marriage, but ultimately exonerated him from the charge of murder. 'Omar remained unconvinced and never forgave Khalid. The affair was magnified because Malik was a renowned chief, and his brother Mutemmam, a poet, immortalized his grief in verse.
The Battle of Yemama and the Defeat of Museilima
Khalid's next campaign was against the most formidable of the false prophets, Museilima, who held absolute power over the powerful Beni Hanifa tribe in Al-Yemama. The Caliph's first expedition against him, led by 'Ikrima and Shurahbil, had ended in a serious defeat. Consequently, Abu Bekr commissioned Khalid for the task, reinforcing him with veterans from Mecca and Medina.
On the march, Khalid's forces captured Maja'a, a chief of the Beni Hanifa, whom he kept chained in his tent under the watch of his new wife, Leila. The next day, the two armies met on the plain of 'Akrabā. The Beni Hanifa fought with such desperate bravery that the Muslims were initially driven back and their camp was overrun. But the spirit of the Muslims was aroused. To stimulate rivalry, Khalid had the Bedouin and City Arabs fight apart. The Muslim lines rallied, and after a furious battle with heavy carnage, they prevailed. The enemy broke and fled into a large, walled orchard, which became known as the "Garden of Death."
The Muslims swarmed the wall, and a hero named Al-Bara ibn Malik had his comrades lift him onto the rampart. He leaped down alone into the enemy host, fought his way to the gate, and threw it open. The Muslim army rushed in, and a terrible slaughter ensued. The Beni Hanifa, trapped within the narrow space, were hewn down to a man. Museilima himself was killed by Wahshi, the same warrior who had killed Hamza at the battle of Ohod. Muslim losses were also immense, with nearly 700 men from Mecca and Medina killed, including thirty-nine of the Prophet's chief Companions. The carnage among the "Readers" who knew the Kor'an by heart was so great that it prompted 'Omar to later consider compiling the sacred text. 'Omar's own brother Zeid was among the slain.
Following the victory, Maja'a, the captive chief, devised a stratagem to save his people. He had the women and children line the fortress walls in warrior's disguise, convincing Khalid that the Beni Hanifa were still strong enough to resist. This led Khalid to grant a more favorable truce than he otherwise would have. He then angered Abu Bekr by marrying Maja'a's daughter on the field, for which the Caliph sent him a bloody and threatening letter of reproof.
While Khalid secured the north and center of Arabia, other columns dispatched by Abu Bekr were engaged in crushing the apostasy in the remaining provinces of the peninsula.
The Campaign in Al-Bahrein
Along the Persian Gulf, the province of Al-Bahrein had fallen into rebellion following the death of its Christian chief, Al-Mundhir, who had accepted Islam. The Caliph sent Al-'Ala with a strong force to reclaim the apostate territory. After entrenching his army, Al-'Ala launched a surprise attack on the enemy, who were celebrating in a drunken state, and captured their new prince. The defeated host fled by ship to the nearby island of Darin, where they were pursued and utterly put to the sword. Al-'Ala's campaign was aided by local loyal chiefs, including Al-Muthanna, who would later play a significant role in the campaign along the Euphrates.
The Reduction of Oman and Mahra
The province of Oman also rebelled after Mohammad’s death, led by a man who claimed to be a prophet. Abu Bekr dispatched Hodheifa and 'Ikrima to reclaim the region. They were joined by the forces of the loyal local prince and defeated the rebels in a great battle, killing their leader and taking vast spoil and countless captives. Following this success, the adjoining province of Mahra was also swiftly brought back to obedience, with its roads, once impassable due to the fighting, now blocked by the corpses of the slain.
Restoring Order in the Yemen
In the Yemen, peace was not so easily restored. After the assassination of the "Veiled Prophet" Aswad, a power struggle erupted between an Arab chief, Keis ibn Mekshuh, and leaders of Persian descent, notably Feiruz. Keis, rebelling against Persian influence, initially drove the foreign settlers out. However, Feiruz gathered support from loyal tribes and eventually retook the capital, San'a.
More effective help arrived as two Muslim armies converged on the region: one led by Al-Muhajir from the north, and another by 'Ikrima from the east. Alarmed by the gathering storm, Keis and an allied chief, 'Amr ibn Ma'dikerib, attempted to resist but soon fell out with each other. Both were eventually captured and sent in chains to Medina. Abu Bekr forgave them, and they went on to fight loyally in the Persian wars. With their removal, the Yemen was speedily brought back to order.
The Rebellion in Hadramaut
Al-Muhajir then proceeded to Hadramaut, where the Beni Kinda tribe, led by their chief Al-Ash'ath ibn Keis, had risen in rebellion against the Muslim tax collector. Al-Muhajir, joined by 'Ikrima, attacked and defeated Al-Ash'ath, besieging him and his followers in a stronghold. Seeing his position was desperate, the wily Al-Ash'ath secretly negotiated to deliver the fortress in exchange for the sparing of nine lives. In his haste, he forgot to include his own name on the list. The Muslim army entered, slew the fighting men, and was about to execute the traitor when 'Ikrima intervened, insisting the case be referred to the Caliph.
In Medina, Abu Bekr initially threatened Al-Ash'ath with death but was eventually moved by his pleas and protestations of future loyalty. He not only forgave him but allowed him to marry his own sister, a betrothal that had been arranged before the rebellion. Al-Ash'ath would later redeem his name in the Persian wars. With this last province subdued, the reign of Islam was completely re-established throughout the peninsula.
Acts of Severity
The campaigns were not without moments of extreme harshness. In the Yemen, two songstresses were mutilated for satirizing the Prophet and mocking Muslims. More notably, a rebel chief named Al-Fuja'a, who had gained arms from the Caliph under false pretenses and became a bandit, was captured and taken to Medina. Enraged at his treachery, Abu Bekr ordered him to be burned alive in a great fire. This savage act was one of three things the Caliph later said he wished he had not done.
A Sullen and Divided Arabia
Within a year of the Prophet's death, the sway of Islam was re-established throughout the Arabian Peninsula. The rebellion was suppressed, but the Arab tribes, particularly the free-roaming Bedouins, remained sullen and resentful. They chafed at the demand for tithes and obedience to a central power in Medina. Had no great impulse arisen from without, the internal rivalries—North against South, Bedouin against townsman, and tribe against tribe—would likely have caused Arabia to revert to its previous state of disunity.
The Unifying Force of Foreign War
The catalyst that unified the nation was the prospect of foreign war. Collisions with border tribes in Chaldæa and then in Syria kindled a new fire. The entire Arabian people, from the cities and the deserts, became riveted to Islam by the powerful and common incentives of battle, plunder, and the spoils of conquest. Abu Bekr's call to arms for these campaigns was met with an enthusiastic response. Later, 'Omar lifted the ban on the once-apostate tribes, allowing them to join the wars, which they did eagerly, though none of their leaders were ever again trusted with a chief command.
The idea of Islam as a global religion was an afterthought, born of circumstance rather than the Prophet's original design. Mohammad's world was Arabia, and his dying wish was that there should be only one faith throughout the land. The universal creed grew from the momentum of these initial conquests on the frontiers.
A New Arab Aristocracy
As the Arabs emerged from their homeland, they established themselves as the aristocracy of the Muslim world. Conquered peoples, even those of higher civilizations, fell into a lower caste upon converting, becoming "Clients" or dependents. This new status was inconsistent with the idea of Arabs themselves being enslaved. Seeing this, the Caliph 'Omar decreed the freedom of all slaves of Arab blood, declaring it unfit for any of the noble race to remain in bondage after their great victories. Consequently, all Arab slaves were allowed to be ransomed, and men set out on journeys to find and reclaim their captive wives and children. This Arab ascendency—social, military, and political—was maintained for two centuries before they were gradually supplanted in the East by Turks and Persians.
The Invasion of Chaldæa
The campaign in Chaldæa (Al-'Irak) began as a collision with the Arab tribes of the region, who were supported by their Persian sovereigns. At the time, the Persian Empire was weakened by internal anarchy, with a rapid succession of feeble rulers following years of disastrous wars with the Byzantine Empire. Seeing an opportunity, Abu Bekr appointed Khalid to lead an army into the fertile delta of the Euphrates, a land of vast cornfields, canals, and palm groves known as the "Garden of the world."
The initial campaign was led by Al-Muthanna, who advanced along the Persian Gulf and into the Euphrates delta, his force swelling to 8,000 men. Abu Bekr then dispatched Khalid to take command. Popular enthusiasm for the expedition was so great that Khalid soon found himself at the head of 10,000 men, in addition to Al-Muthanna's forces, which were loyally placed under his command.
Early Victories
Khalid's first opponent was Hormuz, the tyrannical Persian Satrap of the Delta. Khalid sent him a haughty summons: "Accept the Faith and thou art safe; else pay tribute... which if thou refusest, thou shalt have thyself to blame." The two armies met at the springs of Al-Hafir. In a fierce battle, known as the "Battle of Chains" because some Persian soldiers were bound together to prevent retreat, Hormuz was slain by Khalid in single combat, and the Persian army was routed. The spoils were immense, and Hormuz's jeweled tiara was sent to the Caliph in Medina.
Following this victory, Al-Muthanna pursued the enemy, capturing a fortress called "The Lady's Castle." The Persian court, now thoroughly aroused, dispatched a new army that combined with the rallied forces of Hormuz. They engaged Al-Muthanna's smaller column and placed him in great peril until Khalid arrived with the main army to relieve him. The Persians were again defeated, with vast numbers either slain or drowned. A subsequent, larger Persian force, supported by allied Bedouin tribes, was defeated at Al-Walaja through Khalid's clever use of ambuscades.
The River of Blood
The Christian Arab tribes, embittered by their defeat, roused their brethren on both banks of the Euphrates and urged Persia to seek revenge. A great army of Persians and loyal Bedouins gathered at Ulleis. Khalid met them in what became his most fiercely contested battle yet. With the outcome in doubt, Khalid vowed that if he were victorious, the blood of his enemies would flow in a stream.
After a final, impetuous charge broke the Persian lines, Khalid proclaimed that no fugitives should be slain but rather brought back alive. For two days, his horsemen scoured the country, gathering a multitude of prisoners. Then, a horrific butchery commenced in the dry bed of a canal. So many were beheaded that the earth drank up the blood, and Khalid had a floodgate opened to create a crimson tide to fulfill his vow. The memory of the slaughter lived on in the name given to the stream: the "River of Blood."
The Conquest of Al-Hira
Khalid then advanced on Al-Hira, the region's capital. On the way, he sacked the wealthy city of Amghisiya, whose spoils were so rich that Abu Bekr exclaimed, "Woman shall no more bear a second Khalid!" After a brief siege, Al-Hira capitulated. The city agreed to pay a yearly tribute in exchange for protection, and its administration was left in the hands of its Christian Arab leaders. Here, Khalid established his headquarters for a year, creating the first Muslim capital outside of Arabia. For the first time, the Friday service of Islam was celebrated in the land of Persia.
From his base at Al-Hira, Khalid consolidated his control over the surrounding territory. He laid siege to Al-Anbar, capturing it by having his men throw slain camels into the deep fosse to create a bridge. He then marched on 'Ain at-Tamr, a fortress defended by a Persian governor and allied Christian Arab tribes. After routing the tribes, the fortress surrendered. In an act of severe cruelty that embittered the Christian Bedouins, Khalid had every adult male of the garrison put to death.
The Storming of Duma and Final Raids
While Khalid was securing 'Irak, another Muslim commander, 'Iyad, was struggling against a coalition of hostile tribes at the fortress of Duma. Khalid, leaving his deputy in command at Al-Hira, made a brilliant forced march across the desert and arrived just in time. The combined Muslim force attacked the enemy from two sides and routed them. The fortress was stormed, its inmates were put to the sword, and the women were sold as slaves, with the most beautiful, the daughter of the enemy chief, taken by Khalid for himself.
Returning to Al-Hira, Khalid found that the Persians and their allies had resumed offensive operations in his absence. He sent out columns that crushed the opposition on both sides of the Euphrates through a series of well-planned night attacks, fulfilling a vow to crush the viper in its nest.
The Battle of Firad and Khalid's Pilgrimage
Following his Bedouin foes, Khalid reached Al-Firad on the Syrian border. There, a combined force of Byzantine, Persian, and Christian Arab troops advanced to challenge him. Khalid's army defeated this imposing coalition in a severe conflict with great carnage.
With no enemy left in sight and the season for the pilgrimage at hand, Khalid formed a singular plan. Giving orders for his army to march slowly back to Al-Hira, he secretly set out with a small escort for Mecca. He traversed the desert with marvelous speed and, unknown even to the Caliph Abu Bekr who was presiding, performed the pilgrimage rites. He then raced back and re-entered Al-Hira just as his army's rear-guard was arriving, having kept his journey a secret from everyone. When Abu Bekr eventually learned of it, he was much displeased.
The Opening of the Syrian Campaign
The campaign in Syria began with the appointment of Khalid ibn Sa'id, an early convert. He was instructed to rally friendly tribes on the border but not to advance unless attacked. After routing a Syrian column near the Dead Sea, he called for reinforcements. However, ignoring the Caliph's caution, he was lured by the Byzantine general Bāhān towards Damascus and was decisively defeated at Merj as-Soffar, near the Sea of Tiberias, forcing him to flee back to Medina.
Following this reverse, a more organized invasion was planned. The main army was arranged in three large divisions under the commands of Yezid son of Abu Sufyan, Shurahbil, and the formidable 'Amr ibn al-'As, with Abu 'Obeida also in a leading role. This army was notably different from the one in Al-'Irak; it was composed of the elite of Islam, including at least a thousand "Companions" who had known the Prophet personally.
Khalid's Transfer and Desert March
Viewing the invasion of Syria as more critical than that of Al-'Irak, Abu Bekr made the momentous decision to transfer Khalid from the eastern front to the west. Khalid was instructed to take half his army, leaving the other half with Al-Muthanna. Starting from 'Ain at-Tamr, Khalid undertook a daring and perilous march across the waterless Syrian desert. On one five-day stretch, the army survived by giving a number of camels vast amounts of water to store, then slaughtering them at each stage to provide for the men and horses. After this remarkable feat, he passed Damascus and joined the other Muslim commanders at Bosra, which soon capitulated.
The Battle of Ajnadain
The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius gathered an immense army, said to number 240,000, under the command of his brother Theodore. The Muslim force was much smaller, perhaps 40,000 men, but their spirit was entirely different. The Byzantine army was weakened by bitter religious schisms and the lax loyalty of its Syrian Bedouin auxiliaries. In contrast, the Muslim army was a unified force, fired by a fanatic zeal to fight for God while also winning worldly fortune. For the Muslim soldier, victory meant endless spoil and captive maidens; death meant the prize of paradise.
The two armies met on the field of Ajnadain, between Ramleh and Beit Jibrin, in July 634. The result was a decisive victory for the Muslims. The Byzantine army was routed, Theodore fled in disgrace, and Heraclius retired to Antioch. This victory was a major step in the conquest of the province. Abu Bekr lived just long enough to hear of this first great success.
Capitulation of Fihl
The death of Abu Bekr did not interrupt the campaign, as his successor 'Omar continued the same foreign policy. In the wake of the victory at Ajnadain, Muslim forces captured Gaza, Sebaste (Samaria), Neapolis (Shechem), Lydda, and other towns in Palestine and the Jordan province. The inhabitants' lives and property were spared in exchange for the payment of a poll-tax and land-tax. The Muslim army then divided, with 'Amr remaining to complete the conquest of Palestine while Khalid pushed into the province of the Jordan.
Meanwhile, the remnants of the Byzantine army, reinforced with fresh troops, regrouped near Beisan in the Jordan valley. They attempted to halt the Muslim advance by damming mountain streams and turning the plain into a swamp. The tactic, however, also hindered their own ability to retreat. The Muslims, under Khalid, once again gained the upper hand, and the Greeks were driven across the Jordan to a new position at Fihl (Pella). After a short investment, this city also capitulated on the same terms. Having overrun the region, the Muslim armies were now within two days' march of Damascus.
The Persian Resurgence
After Khalid departed for Syria with half the army, Al-Muthanna was left in command of a diminished force in Al-'Irak. Seeing the Muslims weakened, the Persian court seized the opportunity to strike back. A new ruler, the princess Buran, sent a large army under a veteran general to reclaim the province. As Persian power reasserted itself, the local population began to waver in their allegiance to the Muslims.
Outnumbered, Al-Muthanna was forced to abandon his advanced posts and withdraw all his garrisons, concentrating his small army near Al-Hira, on the border of the desert. He then advanced to meet the Persian host near Babylon.
The Battle of Babylon
The battle was fierce, and the Persians deployed elephants which terrified the Arab horses. Al-Muthanna, however, rallied his men, who bravely attacked the elephants, hamstringing them and killing their riders. In the end, the Muslims, despite being outnumbered, achieved a significant victory, and the Persians gave way. The praises of the "Hero of the Elephant" were celebrated in Arab verse.
Al-Muthanna's Appeal for Reinforcements
Despite his victory, Al-Muthanna's position was precarious. With only a small army, he had to guard a vast frontier against a resurgent empire. He wrote to the Caliph, urging him to send reinforcements and suggesting that the ban on the once-apostate tribes be lifted, as they were brave and eager to fight.
When the answer was delayed, Al-Muthanna traveled to Medina to plead his case in person. He found Abu Bekr on his deathbed. The dying Caliph, his mind still clear, immediately grasped the urgency of the situation. He summoned 'Omar, whom he had already named as his successor, and gave him his final command: "Command a levy for Al-Muthanna. Tarry not. If I die this day, wait not till the evening. Let not sorrow for me divert thee from this service of the Lord." He also instructed 'Omar that once victory in Syria was secure, the army there should be sent back to Al-'Irak, as they were its proper garrison. 'Omar accepted the charge.
Abu Bekr's Final Days
In February 634, Abu Bekr presided over the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, where he visited his father, who was blind from old age. Six months later, he was struck by a fever which confined him to his bed for fifteen days. Realizing his end was near and fearing a succession crisis like the one that followed the Prophet’s death, he resolved to nominate his successor.
He consulted his chief companions, 'Abd ar-Rahman and 'Othman, who both endorsed his choice of 'Omar. Another companion, Talha, expressed concern over 'Omar's severity, but Abu Bekr defended his decision, explaining that 'Omar’s sternness was a necessary counterbalance to his own leniency. He then dictated the order of appointment to 'Othman. After securing the assent of the people gathered in the Mosque, he gave his final counsel to 'Omar.
Death and Burial
To the end, Abu Bekr's mind remained clear and vigorous. On his last day, he gave an audience to Al-Muthanna and, grasping the urgency of the situation in Persia, commanded 'Omar to immediately raise a levy for Al-'Irak. His final illness lasted fifteen days, and he died on August 23, 634, having reigned for two years, three months, and ten days. He was sixty-three years of age. Following his wishes, 'Omar led the funeral service, and he was buried beside the Prophet in 'Aisha's chamber.
Character and Legacy
Abu Bekr was known for his simple and frugal life. For the first six months of his Caliphate, he lived in As-Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and continued to support himself through trade. As the burdens of state grew, he moved to a house near the Great Mosque and consented to receive a yearly allowance of six thousand dirhems. So scrupulous was he that on his deathbed, he commanded that the value of his private property be calculated and paid back to the state from the sale of his lands.
Known as "the Sighing" for his tender-heartedness, he was severe in his treatment of the apostate tribes but was not known for cruelty, with one exception for which he expressed deep regret. He once said there were three things he wished he had not done: burning the brigand Al-Fuja'a, pardoning the rebel Al-Ash'ath, and not sending 'Omar to command in Al-'Irak. Unlike the Prophet, he had few wives and was praised for his diligence, wisdom, and impartiality.
'Omar's Accession and the Levy for Al-'Irak
On the day after Abu Bekr's death, 'Omar ascended the pulpit and addressed the people. His first act as Caliph was to fulfill his predecessor's dying wish: to raise a fresh levy for the war in Al-'Irak. At first, so great was the fear of Persian prowess that no one responded to the call. Seeing this, Al-Muthanna, who was still in Medina, gave a stirring speech, describing the endless plunder, fair captives, and fruitful fields that awaited them.
Inflamed by his words, volunteers began to come forward. 'Omar appointed Abu 'Obeid, the first man to offer his services, as the commander of the new force. Significantly, 'Omar also removed the ban against the once-apostate tribes, allowing them to join the army, and they flocked to the standard. With a lightened heart, Al-Muthanna hastened back to Al-Hira to await the reinforcements.
The Battle of the Bridge
During this time, the Persian court, under the leadership of the powerful general Rustem, had been energized. A large army, accompanied by a host of elephants and flying the imperial banner of panthers' skins, was sent under the command of Bahman to confront the Arabs. The much smaller Muslim force under Abu 'Obeid fell back and encamped on the western bank of the Euphrates, with the Persians on the opposite shore.
Bahman challenged Abu 'Obeid to cross the river or to allow him to cross. Against the cautionary advice of Al-Muthanna and other chiefs, the rash Abu 'Obeid insisted on crossing. The Arab horses were terrified by the elephants and became unmanageable. In a desperate act of bravery, Abu 'Obeid leaped from his horse and attacked the lead white elephant but was trampled to death. Seeing their leader fall, the Arab troops panicked. In the chaos, the bridge of boats was cut, and the retreat became a disaster. Some 4,000 Muslims were killed or drowned, and another 2,000 fled, leaving Al-Muthanna with only 3,000 men. He made a brave stand to protect the broken bridge, allowing the remnant of his army to escape.
The Response and the Battle of Al-Buweib
'Omar received the news of the terrible defeat with calmness. He comforted the fugitives who returned to Medina in shame and immediately issued a call for a new, universal levy. Men from all over Arabia, including a Christian tribe that joined without giving up its faith, responded. The reinforcements, joined by the fugitives seeking to restore their honor, quickly swelled Al-Muthanna's ranks.
Al-Muthanna marched to Al-Buweib, on the western branch of the Euphrates. The Persian army, under a new general, Mihran, crossed the river to meet them. A fierce battle ensued. At a critical moment when a Muslim column broke, Al-Muthanna rallied his men. He then called upon the Christian chief to charge with him, and their combined onslaught shattered the Persian center. The Persian army fell back towards the bridge, but Al-Muthanna's forces swept before them and cut off their retreat. The rout was absolute, with a slaughter so great that tradition numbers the dead at one hundred thousand. The victory, known as the "Day of Tens" because many Muslims each killed ten enemies, completely reversed the disaster of the Bridge. The spoil was immense, and the entire province was reoccupied.
Following the victory, renewed discord at the Persian court gave the Muslims a reprieve. Al-Muthanna, however, who had been wounded at the Battle of the Bridge, succumbed to his injuries. Before his death, he gave his successor advice on campaign strategy, urging that the Arabs should only fight the Persians on the edge of the desert, where they would have the wilderness for refuge.
The Land of Syria
The country in which the Muslim armies now found themselves, the land east of the Jordan, was a stark contrast to Arabia. It was a fertile region of rolling hills and valleys, fields of wheat and barley, and groves of oak and olive trees. The landscape was rich with streams and springs, a pleasant and inviting land compared to the stark deserts the Arabs had left behind.
The local population consisted of Romanized Syrians and Hellenized Bedouins, whose civilization was an import from the West. This superficial culture would eventually vanish after the conquest, leaving only Roman ruins behind. The jewel of this land was Damascus, an ancient commercial center described as a paradise of running waters, shady groves, and beautiful meadows.
The Siege of Damascus
The Muslim conquest of Syria advanced with little resistance. Unlike Persia's struggle for its very existence in Al-'Irak, Syria was merely an outlying, though cherished, province of the Byzantine Empire. The local Christian population, having suffered under Roman tyranny, was largely passive and often found the invaders' rule more just and lenient. As Heraclius withdrew his main forces, the people of the towns offered no opposition, often supplying the Muslim armies.
The Muslim forces completely surrounded Damascus. Khalid positioned his camp at the East Gate; Abu 'Obeida was at the Jabia Gate; 'Amr at the Gate of St. Thomas; and Shurahbil near the Gate of Paradise. The city was thus encircled by a cordon of hostile camps, and after a siege of six months, all hope of rescue from the outside vanished.
The Fall of the City
Damascus was ultimately taken from two points simultaneously. On one side, Khalid and his men stormed the East Gate, using ladders to scale the walls and overpowering the guards. As the assault began, the city's governor, seeing that resistance was futile, rushed to the opposite side of the city and capitulated to Abu 'Obeida at the Jabia Gate, who entered peacefully.
The two Muslim divisions met in the center of the city. After a dispute between the commanders, it was agreed that the peaceful terms of surrender granted by Abu 'Obeida would apply to the entire city. The treaty guaranteed the inhabitants their lives, property, and churches in exchange for the payment of tribute. Those who wished to leave were given safe conduct, while those who remained became protected subjects. As part of the terms, one half of the great Church of St. John was set apart for use as a mosque. There is a historical debate over whether Khalid's name or Abu 'Obeida's was on the final treaty, a point related to the controversial timing of 'Omar's decision to depose Khalid from supreme command.
A New Campaign Against Persia
After the death of Al-Muthanna, the Caliph 'Omar recognized that there could be no lasting security in Al-'Irak as long as the Persian Empire remained intact next to it. He resolved that the capital of Persia, Al-Medain, must be taken at any cost. Orders more stringent than ever before went out for a "universal levy," and Arabia again resounded with the call to arms. 'Omar initially intended to lead the army in person, but his chief companions argued against it, persuading him that it was safer for the Caliphate if he remained in Medina.
The command of this great army was given to Sa'd ibn abi Wakkas, a distinguished Companion. The new levy, numbering over 30,000, was the largest and most impressive force yet mustered by the Arabs, including 1,400 Companions and ninety-nine veterans of the Battle of Bedr. Sa'd marched slowly to the plains of Al-Kadisya, a location on the edge of the desert with a secure line of retreat, and there the army encamped for several months, awaiting the Persian advance.
The Persian Response
In Persia, the young king Yezdejird, now sixteen years of age, had established himself at Al-Medain and began to rally his forces. An embassy from Sa'd appeared before him, offering the standard choice of Islam, tribute, or the sword. The king haughtily rejected their terms. He sent them away bearing a clod of earth, symbolizing that the Arabs would only gain the dust of his kingdom. The Arabs accepted it as a happy omen, a sign that the Lord had given them the soil of Persia.
Despite gathering a massive army of 120,000 men with thirty-three elephants, the Persian general Rustem advanced with great reluctance, troubled by ill omens and dreams. He hoped the Arabs would be worn out by the long suspense. After a long delay, he finally crossed the Euphrates and advanced on Al-Kadisya. In a final attempt at peace, envoys from both sides met, but the talks ended in fruitless recrimination. Rustem, refusing to be drawn across the river to the Arabs' strong position, had his men construct a dam of fascines and earth during the night, and by morning, his army began to cross.
The Battle of Al-Kadisya: The First and Second Days
The battle, which would rage for three days, began. Sa'd, afflicted with painful boils, was unable to mount his horse and commanded from a litter on the ramparts of a fortress, a fact which caused some murmuring among his troops. The first day was called the "Day of Concussion." The Persian elephants wrought havoc on the Arab cavalry, which broke and fled from the terrifying sight. The Arab lines were saved by the heroic actions of several clans, especially the Beni Asad, and by a band of archers who picked off the elephant riders and cut their girths, causing the great beasts to flee.
The second day, called the "Day of Succor," was marked by the timely arrival of the first contingent of reinforcements from Syria, led by the hero Al-Ka'ka'. To magnify his force, Al-Ka'ka' had his men arrive in small squadrons, creating the illusion of a continuous stream of reinforcements, which greatly heartened the Muslim army. He personally slew the Persian "hero of the Bridge" in single combat. The Arabs also employed a new tactic, disguising their camels with drapery to frighten the Persian horses, which turned the enemy's own stratagem against them. The fighting was intense, and the day ended with heavy losses on both sides.
The Night of Clangour and the Final Victory
The battle continued unabated through the night, which became known as the "Night of Clangour" from the incessant, deafening noise of the armies. In the morning, the Persians brought their elephants back to the field. This time, Al-Ka'ka' led a party that targeted the two lead elephants, blinding them with their lances. The panicked lead elephants turned and trampled through the Persian ranks, spreading chaos, and the rest of the elephant corps followed them in flight across the river.
The fighting continued without pause into a fourth day. After twenty-four hours of unceasing combat, Al-Ka'ka' cried out that one more vigorous charge would turn the tide. The weary Arabs rallied for a final, fresh attack. The Persian lines began to waver, and a fierce onslaught on their center exposed the bank where Rustem sat on his throne. A tempestuous wind arose, blowing his canopy into the river. As Rustem attempted to flee, he was injured by a falling load from a mule, caught by a soldier, and slain on the spot. With their leader's death, the Persian host broke into a complete rout. The slaughter was immense, and the pursuit relentless.
Aftermath
The defeat was decisive for the Persian Empire. The spoil was beyond the Arabs' comprehension. The great imperial banner of Persia, made of panthers' skins and richly garnished with gems, was captured on the field. The courier sent to carry the news of the victory to Medina was so exhausted that he at first failed to recognize the Caliph. 'Omar, who had been walking out of the city daily in hopes of news, ran alongside the courier's camel, gleaning the outlines of the great battle before revealing his identity. Such was the simple and unassuming nature of the man who ruled an empire now greater than that of either the Kaiser or the Chosroes.
The Advance on the Persian Capital
After the decisive victory at Al-Kadisya, the Arab forces under Sa'd reoccupied Al-Hira and soon brought the entire country west of the Tigris River under their control
Sa'd then laid siege to the western quarter of the capital, a siege that lasted for several months
The Miraculous Crossing of the Tigris
The Tigris was in full flood, and for a time, the Arab army could not cross
The Fall of Al-Medain and its Spoils
The Persians, taken completely by surprise, fled in panic
The most wondrous prize was a massive banqueting carpet called "the Winter," which depicted a garden with precious stones for fruits, gold for soil, and silk for leaves
The Battle of Jalula
Following the fall of Al-Medain, 'Omar was satisfied with the success achieved and forbade any further advance into the Persian highlands. In the autumn, however, the Persians resolved to try again and flocked in great numbers to King Yezdejird at Holwan, about one hundred miles north of the capital. From there, a large force advanced to Jalula, an impregnable fortress surrounded by a deep trench and protected by iron spikes.
Sa'd dispatched a force of 12,000 men under Hashim and Al-Ka'ka' to besiege the fortress. After a siege of eighty days and numerous fierce encounters, the Persians made a desperate final stand but were completely defeated. Yezdejird, hearing of the disaster, fled farther east to Ar-Reiy. Al-Ka'ka' then advanced and captured Holwan, establishing it as the northernmost Muslim outpost. The spoil from Jalula was again immense, and multitudes of captive women were distributed among the troops. After this victory, 'Omar reiterated his command, strictly forbidding any advance beyond the western mountain range of Persia, famously stating, "I desire that between Mesopotamia and the lands beyond, the hills shall be a barrier, a wall of fire."
The Founding of Al-Basra and Al-Kufa
While the main army was engaged in the north, 'Omar had dispatched 'Otba ibn Ghazwan to capture the flourishing seaport of Ubulla at the head of the Persian Gulf. After securing the area, the Arabs founded a small settlement of reed huts, which, through constant arrivals from Arabia, soon grew in size and importance. This settlement would become the city of Al-Basra.
The marshy and inhospitable climates of both Al-Basra and Al-Medain, however, proved unsuitable for the Arab temperament. When a deputation appeared before 'Omar, he was struck by their sallow and unhealthy look and ordered a search for more congenial spots. The new sites were to be on the edge of the western desert, ensuring open air and a secure line of communication with Medina. For the army of Al-Medain, a plain near Al-Hira on the banks of the Euphrates was chosen, and it was named Al-Kufa. The Arabs migrated in great numbers from Al-Medain to the new capital.
The dwellings in both new cities were at first made of reeds, but after a disastrous fire, the Caliph gave permission for them to be built of brick. He stipulated, however, that no man should have more than three houses, nor should they build ostentatious dwellings, so as to avoid the temptations of luxury and pride.
The Land Settlement of Al-'Irak
A critical question then arose regarding the settlement of the land. The rich plain of Chaldæa, having been taken by force, was claimed by the Arab soldiers as prize of war to be distributed amongst them. 'Omar, in a decision that highlights his judgment and equity, rejected this demand. After consulting with his advisors in Medina, he argued that dividing the land would be impossible to do equitably, would breed conflict, and, most importantly, would leave nothing for the support of future generations of Muslims or for the maintenance of the state and its vital infrastructure, such as the vast network of canals.
He therefore ordered that the original cultivators of the soil should be treated as protected subjects and confirmed in their possessions in exchange for a moderate tribute. Royal domains, lands of the Persian nobles, and endowments of Fire-temples were confiscated as state property. The revenue from these state lands, along with the tribute from non-Muslims, was used to create a pension for every Arab, turning the entire nation into a salaried military class. This policy, however, had the unintended consequence of creating a vast body of men living in subsidized idleness, which fostered a petulant and factious spirit. The new cities of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra, in particular, became hotbeds of turbulence and sedition, sowing the seeds of future discord.
Advance into Northern Syria
After the initial conquests in the south, Khalid and Abu 'Obeida pushed north into Coelo-Syria, capturing Baalbek and Emesa. Their expedition, however, was more of a reconnaissance, and they were forced to retreat precipitously before the advance of a new, large Greek army.
The Muslims' position would have been desperate had they mistreated the local population. However, their lenient, just, and honest rule presented a marked contrast to the tyranny and intolerance of the Romans. As a result, when the new Roman army appeared, the Muslims were operating in what was effectively a friendly country. The Syrian Christians, enjoying more civil and political liberty under the Arab invaders, had no wish to return to their former masters.
The Battle of the Yarmuk
The new army assembled by the Emperor Heraclius included Christian Arabs, Armenians, Syrians, and Greeks, under the supreme command of Theodore the Sakellarius. Their numbers were overwhelming, estimated at one or two hundred thousand. The much smaller Muslim force, seeing the danger, abandoned Damascus and fell back to a strong position on the plain by the Yarmuk river, a tributary of the Jordan. In a remarkable act of integrity, they returned the tribute money they had collected from the people of Hims and Damascus, telling them they could no longer guarantee their protection but would reclaim the funds if they were victorious.
The battle raged for several days with shifting fortunes. On one occasion, the Arab lines broke, and the soldiers fled back to their camp, only to be met by their women, who drove them back into the fight with tent-poles, taunts, and songs. Another day, known as the "Day of Blinding," was marked by the skill of the Greek archers, who caused many Muslims to lose an eye. The turning point came when 'Ikrima, a Muslim commander, led a heroic charge with four hundred men, who fought to the death and broke the enemy's spirit.
A Decisive Victory and its Aftermath
Finally, the Greeks were completely routed. Aided by a fierce dust storm that blew into their faces, their vast army was either cut to pieces or driven over the precipice into the river below. The slaughter was immense, with an estimated 70,000 perishing. The Emperor Heraclius, upon hearing of the disaster, departed from Antioch for Constantinople, bidding a final "Farewell, Syria, a long farewell."
With the Byzantine army destroyed, the country fell into the hands of the Arabs almost naturally. Damascus was reoccupied exactly one year after its first capture. Khalid's military work in Syria was now complete; the land was won, and the task shifted from conquest to civil administration. This new phase required the skills of an administrator like Abu 'Obeida, not a warrior like Khalid. Thus, 'Omar's decision to replace Khalid was a practical one, driven by the changing needs of the province, and the troops from Al-'Irak were ordered home.
The Capitulation of Jerusalem
After the Battle of Fihl, the greater part of the Jordan province fell to the Muslim armies. In Palestine proper, 'Amr first directed his forces towards Jerusalem. On his approach, the Byzantine general Artabun retired with his army to Egypt. The Patriarch of the city, Sophronius, then sued for peace, but on one remarkable condition: that the Caliph 'Omar should come to the Holy City and settle the terms of capitulation in person.
Braving the objections of his court, 'Omar set out, journeying directly for Al-Jabiya, a town east of the Sea of Galilee which was the base of operations for the Syrian campaign. He traveled with little pomp, wearing a simple mantle of camel's hair. At Al-Jabiya, he was met by his chief commanders, and it was there that the treaty for Jerusalem was settled.
Afterward, 'Omar visited Jerusalem itself. Christian writers say he accompanied the Patriarch on a tour of the city, visiting the various places of pilgrimage. When the hour of prayer arrived, the Patriarch invited the Caliph to pray in the Church of the Resurrection. 'Omar declined, explaining kindly that if he were to do so, his followers would later seize the church as a place where Muslim prayer had been offered. He also visited Bethlehem and made a similar ruling to protect the Church of the Nativity.
The Ordinance of 'Omar
The treaty for Jerusalem, which became the model for Christian communities throughout Syria, granted the people safety for their lives, property, churches, and crosses. However, it came with a long list of restrictions. The Christians were not to build new churches, monasteries, or hermitages. They were forbidden from displaying the cross or their books in public, and they were not to ring their church bells loudly.
Further conditions required them to show deference to Muslims, rising from their seats as a mark of respect. They were forbidden from adopting Muslim names, dress, or customs, and from riding horses with saddles. They were also required to pay the poll-tax, or Jizya. While these terms were restrictive, the text notes that some of the more humiliating conditions may have been additions from a later, less tolerant age.
'Omar's Administration of Syria
The main purpose of 'Omar's journey was to establish a sound government for the entire province of Syria. He revised the various treaties made by his generals to ensure uniformity. For taxation, all of Syria was designated as kharaj land, meaning it was subject to a land-tax, payable by all, which would support the state. The poll-tax, or Jizya, was imposed on all non-Muslims in three classes based on wealth—rich, middle-class, and poor.
During this visit, a notable incident occurred with Jabala, the "king" of the Christian Ghassanid Arabs. As a high-born Arab, he objected to paying the poll-tax, which he considered a badge of servitude. When an ordinary Bedouin trod on his robe and he retaliated by striking the man, 'Omar decreed that Jabala must either submit to a retaliatory blow or pay a heavy fine. Scorning the judgment, Jabala fled during the night to Constantinople, where he remained a Christian.
The Uprising in Northern Syria
In the sixth year of 'Omar's Caliphate, the Byzantine Emperor made a desperate effort to reclaim Northern Syria. The attempt was instigated by an appeal from the Christian tribes of Upper Mesopotamia, who feared falling under Muslim rule. The Emperor planned a two-pronged attack: a naval expedition from Alexandria would strike Antioch, while great hordes of Bedouins would gather to besiege the Muslim headquarters at Hims.
The Muslim commander, Abu 'Obeida, finding himself greatly outnumbered, called in all his outlying garrisons and sent an urgent appeal for help to the Caliph. 'Omar responded with a brilliant strategic move. He commanded Sa'd, the governor of Al-'Irak, to send immediate reinforcements under the famous warrior Al-Ka'ka' to relieve Hims. Simultaneously, he ordered Sa'd to dispatch another force to create a powerful diversion by invading the heart of Mesopotamia, the homeland of the besieging tribes.
The diversion worked perfectly. As the Muslim forces raided their homes and families, the Mesopotamian tribes abandoned the siege of Hims to defend their own territory. They were pursued and defeated, and the entire region of Upper Mesopotamia was pacified. In a show of 'Omar's characteristic liberality, the powerful Christian tribe of Beni Taghlib was allowed to retain their faith, on the condition that they not educate their children as Christians and paid a "double Tithe" instead of the standard, more humiliating, tribute.
The Fall of Cæsarea
The last Byzantine stronghold to hold out in Syria was Cæsarea. After the Muslim victory at the Yarmuk, it had been continuously under siege. The city finally fell in the fifth year of 'Omar's Caliphate, aided by the treason of a Jew who revealed an unguarded aqueduct leading into the city. The victory was credited to Mu'awiya. The slaughter was immense, with the heads of 7,000 slain Muslims being displayed on the city walls, while the Greek and Samaritan garrison lost 100,000 men.
The Trial and Deposition of Khalid
The career of the great general Khalid ibn al-Welid came to an unfortunate end. After his campaigns in the north, he had returned to his seat of government greatly enriched by the spoils of war. His boundless generosity, including a gift of one thousand gold pieces to a chieftain, and a minor infraction of bathing in water mixed with wine, gave his enemies at court an opportunity to move against him.
By 'Omar's command, Khalid was publicly arraigned before the army. The revered Bilal, the Prophet's Muezzin, acted as prosecutor, stepping forth and, in a deeply humiliating scene, unwinding the kerchief from Khalid's head and binding his hands with it. The great warrior, who had been instrumental in the conquests of Islam, stood as a felon before the congregation. When asked about the source of his wealth, Khalid maintained it was his own.
Though his hands were unbound, he was deposed from his command and summoned to Medina. Before the Caliph, Khalid remained defiant, accusing 'Omar of being moved by jealousy. 'Omar, unmoved, declared: "The Lord hath given thee a ready tongue, and a lucky star." He then confiscated half of Khalid's vast fortune and proclaimed his deposition throughout the empire. Khalid retired to Hims, where he died a few years later. On his deathbed, he lamented dying in his bed instead of as a martyr on the field. Hearing of his death, 'Omar was filled with remorse, weeping and acknowledging, "The women of the Beni Makhzum are exhausted; they can bring forth no other Khalid."
Purging Arabia of Other Faiths
Once victory was secured in Syria and Chaldæa, 'Omar proceeded to execute a harsh policy based on the supposed dying wish of Mohammad: "In Arabia there shall be no faith but the faith of Islam." To ensure that the Arabian Peninsula remained a sacred and exclusive recruiting ground for the faith, all other religions were to be purged.
The Christians of Nejran, who had remained loyal to their treaty throughout the apostasy wars, were ordered to depart from their native soil. They were offered land in exchange elsewhere or a monetary payment, and most of them migrated to Al-'Irak. Shortly after, the Jews of Kheibar, who had been left on their lands by Mohammad in exchange for half their produce, met a similar fate. They received a money payment and were sent away to Syria.
The Nation of Soldiers and the Register of Pensions
The Arab nation was to be the champion of Islam, and every Arab was reserved for the role of a soldier. They were not permitted to settle down as landowners in conquered territories but were to live on the revenues of those provinces. To manage the distribution of the vast new wealth, 'Omar established the Diwan, a register of pensions for the entire Arab nation.
Stipends were graded based on three criteria: priority of conversion, relationship to the Prophet, and military service. The widows of Mohammad took precedence with an annual allowance of 10,000 pieces each. Veterans of the Battle of Bedr received 5,000 each; those who took the Pledge of the Tree received 4,000; and the pensions graduated downwards to 200 pieces for the latest levies. Women, children, and even the few remaining Arab slaves each had their own stipend. This system effectively turned the entire nation into a mobilized army, with the camp, not the city, as their home. The register was organized strictly by tribe and clan, which had the lasting effect of preserving Arab genealogies.
Civil Administration and the Compilation of the Kor'an
Civil administration followed closely on the heels of conquest. In Chaldæa, the great network of canals was taken in hand. Across the empire, provincial governments were established with a Wali (governor) and a Kadhi (judge). To ensure correct religious practice among the vast numbers of new converts, 'Omar also appointed teachers in every country to instruct the people in the Kor'an and its requirements.
It was also at this time that the first official compilation of the Kor'an was undertaken. The idea originated with 'Omar, who became concerned after the Battle of Yemama, where a great number of the "Readers"—those who had the scripture by heart—were killed. He feared that parts of the sacred text could be lost. He urged Abu Bekr to act, who, after some hesitation, commissioned Zeid ibn Thabit for the task.
Zeid sought out all the surviving fragments of revelation, gathering them from date-leaves, shreds of leather, shoulder-blades, stone tablets, and from the memories of men. He carefully dovetailed these materials into a continuous manuscript. This original compilation was then entrusted to the keeping of Hafsa, 'Omar's daughter and one of the Prophet's widows, and it remained the standard text for years to come.
The Year of Ashes
In the year 639, a severe drought led to a devastating famine in Northern and Central Arabia. The landscape grew barren, and the wind blew sand and dust that resembled ashes, giving the calamity its name, the "Year of Ashes." The Caliph 'Omar took the suffering of his people upon himself, swearing to taste no milk, butter, or meat until the famine had passed. He lived on coarse fare and grew thin and sallow from his austerity.
'Omar worked tirelessly to organize relief. He wrote to his commanders in Syria, Palestine, and Al-'Irak for aid. Caravans of grain and supplies soon arrived from every direction. Food was dispatched from Palestine by both camel and ship, and provisions also came from Chaldæa. Twenty beasts were slain daily in Medina to feed the citizens. After nine months of severe hardship, 'Omar called a solemn assembly for prayer, after which heavy rains finally fell, ending the drought.
The Plague of 'Amwas
The famine was followed by an even greater calamity in Syria. A deadly plague, known as the plague of 'Amwas after the town where it began, broke out and devastated the province, attacking the Arab forces with special virulence. Upon hearing of the disaster, 'Omar journeyed to Syria to address the crisis. At the border, he met with his commanders, including Abu 'Obeida, to debate whether it was right to enter a land afflicted by pestilence.
The Companions were divided. 'Omar was inclined to turn back, which prompted Abu 'Obeida to exclaim, "Flee ye from the decree of the Lord?" 'Omar famously replied, "Yea, we flee from the decree of the Lord unto the decree of the Lord." The debate was settled when a Companion recalled a saying of the Prophet: "If pestilence break out in a land, go not thither; if thou art there, flee not from it." Hearing this, 'Omar decided to return to Medina.
Aftermath of the Plague and 'Omar's Second Visit
Abu 'Obeida returned to his camp and, following the Caliph's advice, began to move his people to the healthier highlands of the Hauran. However, he was struck down by the plague himself and died. His successor, Mo'adh ibn Jebel, also perished almost immediately, as did another great commander, Shurahbil. In total, 25,000 Muslims were lost to the scourge.
The vast loss of life left a great number of properties and estates to be settled, causing much confusion. The crisis was so severe that 'Omar made a second journey to Syria. He traveled throughout the province, personally deciding on doubtful claims and restoring order. As both Abu 'Obeida and the governor Yezid had died, 'Omar appointed Mu'awiya, another son of Abu Sufyan, to the supreme command of Syria, a post that would become the foundation of the Umeiyad dynasty.
During his visit, the Caliph was reunited with Bilal, the beloved Muezzin of the Prophet, who had retired from his office after Mohammad's death. At the earnest request of 'Omar and the assembled leaders, Bilal agreed to call the prayer one last time. As his powerful voice, unchanged by the years, rang out, it brought back vivid memories of the Prophet's days, and the entire assembly, including 'Omar, was moved to tears.
The Invasion of Egypt
The conquest of Egypt was proposed by 'Amr ibn al-'As, who was familiar with the country from his trading days. The land was of immense strategic value, serving as the granary of Constantinople, and its capital, Alexandria, was the second city in the Byzantine Empire. However, the province was ripe for conquest. There was a deep and bitter division between the native Coptic population, who were Jacobite Christians, and their Greek rulers, who adhered to the Melkite (or Chalcedon) creed. This rift was widened by years of persecution under Cyrus, the Byzantine patriarch, which left the Coptic population eager for deliverance from foreign rule.
'Amr began his invasion in 640 with a small force of only three or four thousand men. The Caliph 'Omar, initially hesitant about the risky venture, is said to have dispatched a letter of recall. 'Amr, suspecting its contents, cleverly avoided opening it until he had crossed the border into Egyptian territory, at which point he declared he was bound to follow the Caliph's command to advance.
The Fall of Babylon and Alexandria
'Amr's small force quickly captured the frontier town of Farama and then Bilbeis. His advance was checked at the formidable fortress of Babylon, near modern Cairo. Reinforcements, including the famous warrior Az-Zubeir, arrived from Medina, swelling his army to 15,000 men. The siege of Babylon began in September 640 and lasted for eight months. The fortress finally fell in April 641, through a combination of a daring assault led by Az-Zubeir, who scaled the walls, and a capitulation negotiated by the garrison.
With Babylon secured, 'Amr advanced on Alexandria. He defeated a Byzantine army under Theodore and laid siege to the great port city. Within the walls, contention between various factions was rampant. The Coptic patriarch, Cyrus, who had previously persecuted his own people, returned empowered to make peace. In the autumn of 641, a treaty was concluded, ceding Egypt to the Muslims. The terms included an eleven-month truce to allow any Greek who wished to depart safely by sea.
Administration and Public Works
'Omar forbade making Alexandria the capital, as it was separated from Medina by the Nile and he wanted no water between himself and his armies. 'Amr was instructed to choose a more central location. He pitched his camp at the site of his siege headquarters, and a new city, named Fustat ("the Encampment"), arose there. According to a famous legend, the site was chosen because as 'Amr was about to strike his tent, he found that a dove had nested on its top; he declared the spot sacred and left the tent standing.
The Caliph, with great foresight, refused to allow the land of Egypt to be partitioned among the soldiers. Instead, he ordered that it be left in the hands of its Coptic cultivators, who would pay a tribute, ensuring the land remained a rich source of revenue for the state and grain for Arabia. To facilitate the transport of this grain, 'Amr reopened the ancient canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea. Within a year, a fleet of ships was carrying corn from the Nile valley to the ports of the Hijaz.
Later Events
After consolidating his rule, 'Amr pushed his conquests westward, establishing himself in Barka and reaching as far as Tripoli. Several years later, during the Caliphate of 'Othman, the Byzantines attempted to retake Egypt. A fleet of 300 ships recaptured Alexandria, whose Greek inhabitants conspired with them. 'Amr, who had been replaced, was hastily reappointed and rushed to the rescue. He defeated the Greeks in a great battle outside the walls and, after a siege, took the city by storm. To prevent a similar event from happening again, he razed the city's fortifications.
A Disastrous Raid on Persia
The Caliph 'Omar's cautious policy was to restrain the Muslim armies within the limits of the Arabian 'Irak, avoiding a full-scale invasion of the Persian highlands. This policy was challenged when Al-'Ala, the governor of Al-Bahrein, launched an unauthorized naval expedition across the Gulf against Istakhr (Persepolis). The raid was a disaster; the force was surrounded by the Persians and would have been annihilated had not a relief column been dispatched from Al-Basra. 'Omar was furious at the unsanctioned and perilous venture and reprimanded Al-'Ala, vowing never again to employ him.
The Repeated Rebellions of Al-Hormuzan
Hostilities were soon precipitated in the southern Persian province of Khuzistan. 'Otba, the governor of Al-Basra, sent forces to occupy the area. They defeated the Persian satrap, Al-Hormuzan, who then made a treaty by which he retained his provincial rule as a Muslim vassal. However, he soon broke the treaty and was defeated again. 'Omar, still hesitant to expand the conflict, ordered his commanders to focus on restoring the province's irrigation works rather than advancing further, and Al-Hormuzan was granted another amnesty.
Not long after, inspired by emissaries from King Yezdejird, Al-Hormuzan rebelled a third time. 'Omar, suspecting a serious and coordinated opposition, ordered a powerful army to assemble from Al-Kufa and Al-Basra. Al-Hormuzan was pursued and routed, finally taking refuge in the stronghold of Tostar. The city resisted for several months until it was taken by an act of treason. Al-Hormuzan retreated to the citadel but was eventually forced to surrender and was taken prisoner.
The Tomb of Daniel and the Fate of Al-Hormuzan
Following the fall of Tostar, the Muslim army besieged the ancient city of Sus, which also capitulated. There, they discovered a treasure which was said to be the coffin of the prophet Daniel. 'Omar ordered that the remains be honorably and secretly re-buried to prevent them from becoming an object of superstitious worship.
Al-Hormuzan, the captured satrap, was sent to Medina. Dressed in his rich brocades, he was brought before the Caliph, whom the deputation found asleep on a cushion in the Great Mosque. Startled by the contrast between the simple court of the Caliph and the lavish palaces of Persia, Al-Hormuzan was led before 'Omar. As he stood awaiting his sentence of death, he asked for a drink of water. He then cleverly made 'Omar promise that he would not be killed until he had drunk it. Once the promise was given, Al-Hormuzan poured the water on the ground. 'Omar, bound by his word, spared his life. The Persian noble then professed his faith in Islam and was granted a high-ranking pension in Medina.
'Omar Changes His Policy
The Caliph asked the deputation why the Persians so persistently broke faith. "It is not our harshness," they replied, "but their King that incites them. Two kings can in no wise exist together, until the one expel the other. So it will go on until thou shalt remove the barrier and leave us to go forward and expel their King. Not till then will their hopes and machinations cease." Al-Hormuzan confirmed this view. The truth began to dawn on 'Omar that for the sake of self-defense, a full invasion was necessary. He now saw that to secure peace, he had no choice but to crush the Persian king and take entire possession of his realm.
The Final Persian Stand
With the ban on a forward advance lifted, King Yezdejird of Persia resolved to make one last, desperate stand. He summoned a massive army, said to number 150,000, from every remaining corner of his empire, from the shores of the Caspian to the valley of the Indus. The vast host gathered on the plain of Nihavend, posing a mortal threat to the Muslim positions at Al-Kufa and Al-Basra.
The Caliph 'Omar, recognizing the imminent danger, again declared his intention to lead the Muslim army in person. However, as before, his companions persuaded him to remain in the capital, arguing that the fate of Islam should not be risked on a single battlefield. He therefore appointed An-No'man to the chief command of the Muslim force, which numbered 30,000 men.
The "Victory of Victories"
The two armies met on the plain of Nihavend. For two days, the Persians remained within their entrenched and fortified positions, from which the Muslims could not dislodge them. On the third day, the Arab commanders devised a stratagem. They feigned a retreat, which successfully lured the Persian army out of their fortifications in pursuit. Once the Persians were on the open plain, the Muslims turned and launched a furious, decisive assault.
The battle was severe, and the Muslim commander, An-No'man, was one of the first to fall. But the Arab forces, undeterred, pressed their attack and achieved a total rout of the Persian army. The slaughter was immense. The victory was so complete and decisive that it became known in Muslim history as the "Victory of Victories." The booty was enormous, and included two caskets of rare gems from the royal treasury. 'Omar initially placed these in the treasury at Medina, but after a vision warned him of punishment, he had them sold and the price distributed among the army.
The Conquest of Persia
The Persian Empire never recovered from the blow at Nihavend. Yezdejird, refusing to yield, fled from city to city across his former domain, from Ar-Reiy to Isfahan, then to Kirman, and finally to the far frontier of Khorasan, where he lived for some years in exile.
With the king in flight and the imperial army destroyed, the various provinces of Persia were overrun one after another by Muslim columns. Fars, Kirman, Makran, Sijistan, Khorasan, and Azerbaijan were all conquered. However, the subjugation was not immediate; the people would often rise in rebellion, and it was a long time before the invaders could feel secure outside of their military garrisons. Over time, the political and social inducements to embrace the dominant creed proved irresistible, and the Persian race gradually came over to Islam. Yet, however noble or refined, they held for a long time a place apart, inferior to the ruling class of Arabian blood, and could only gain recognition as "Clients" of their Arab masters.
Public Works and Domestic Events
During his reign, the Caliph 'Omar undertook several public works. He enlarged the sacred square around the Ka'ba in Mecca, compensating the owners of the demolished houses. He also rebuilt and beautified the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. When a volcano erupted near the city, the Caliph commanded that alms be distributed to the poor, after which the eruption reportedly ceased. 'Omar's only naval expedition, an ill-fated venture to Abyssinia, ended in a shipwreck, which led him to vow he would never again permit his troops to embark upon the treacherous sea.
The Turbulent Cities of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra
'Omar faced significant challenges in governing the new, turbulent cities of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra. The governor of Al-Basra, Al-Mogira, was brought to trial for adultery. Three witnesses gave clear testimony against him, but the fourth equivocated, invalidating their evidence. As a result, Al-Mogira was acquitted on the technicality, and his accusers were scourged according to Islamic law. 'Omar, though forced to release him, deposed him and appointed the pious Abu Musa in his place.
Al-Kufa was equally difficult to manage. The original conqueror of Persia, Sa'd, was its governor, but a trivial complaint from the citizens that he did not conduct the mosque service well was enough for 'Omar to recall him, a testament to the petulant and factious spirit of the city's inhabitants.
Establishment of the Hijra Era
Early in his reign, 'Omar established the Islamic calendar. The need for a standardized system of dating arose from official correspondence. After consulting his chief advisers, 'Omar decreed that the era should be dated from the Hijra, the Prophet's flight from Mecca to Medina. The epoch was to begin with the first day of the month of Moharram of that year, corresponding to Friday, July 16, 622 A.D.
Changing Morals and 'Omar's Austerity
The vast influx of wealth and captives from conquered lands began to erode the traditional social fabric. Polygamy and concubinage with slave-girls became common, diminishing the honored position once held by noble-born Arab wives. The simple life was giving way to luxury, and drunkenness became a frequent offense, which 'Omar punished rigorously, even having stripes inflicted on his own son.
In stark contrast to this growing luxury, 'Omar maintained a life of extreme simplicity and austerity. He was accessible to the humblest of his subjects, wore a garment of coarse material patched in a dozen places, and his diet often consisted of little more than barley bread and olive oil. He slept on a bed of palm leaves and was famous for the simplicity of his household, despite having married nine wives over the course of his life. He sought to marry 'Ali's young daughter, Um Kultham, in order to form an alliance with the Prophet's immediate family, and after some reluctance from the bride's side, the marriage was accomplished. His austere personal life stood as a rebuke to the changes sweeping across Muslim society.
The Assassination of 'Omar
In the eleventh year of his Caliphate, 'Omar, now about sixty years of age and full of vigor, performed the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. A few days after his return to Medina, his reign came to a tragic end.
The assassin was Abu Lu'lu'a, a Persian Christian slave belonging to the governor Al-Mogira. Nursing a grudge against 'Omar for dismissing his complaint about a tax levied by his master, the slave accosted the Caliph in the marketplace and made a threatening remark. The next day, during morning prayers in the Mosque, Abu Lu'lu'a mingled with the front rank of worshippers. As 'Omar began the service, the assassin rushed upon him and stabbed him six times with a sharp blade. Before killing himself, he ran wildly about, killing or wounding several others.
'Omar fell to the ground but was composed enough to instruct 'Abd ar-Rahman to complete the prayer service. He was then carried into his house adjoining the court. A physician confirmed that the wounds were mortal and advised him to make his final testament.
The Appointment of the Electors
To prevent the kind of anarchy that followed the Prophet's death, 'Omar was persuaded to appoint a successor. He decided against nominating a single person and instead entrusted the choice to a council of six Electors. These were the leading Companions of the Prophet: 'Ali, 'Othman, 'Abd ar-Rahman, Sa'd, Az-Zubeir, and Talha.
He laid down strict rules for their conclave. They were given three days to make a decision. His own son, 'Abdallah, was to be present as an advisor but would have no vote. Suheib was to lead the public prayers in the interim. A guard of fifty men was to surround the house where the Electors met and ensure a decision was reached within the allotted time. The instructions were grimly reinforced: if the Electors could not agree, they were to follow the party that included 'Abd ar-Rahman. If any of the six refused to agree with the majority, he was to be beheaded.
Death and Character
'Omar's last wish was to be buried next to the Prophet and Abu Bekr. He sent his son to ask permission from 'Aisha, in whose chamber their graves were, and she tearfully gave her consent. As he lay dying, he rested his head on his son's bosom and repeated the name of the Lord until he passed away, a few days before the close of the 23rd year of the Hijra. He had reigned for ten and a half years.
'Omar's Caliphate was marked by the great conquests of Syria, Persia, and Egypt, but his administration was defined by a powerful sense of justice and responsibility. In his early life, he was known for a fiery and impatient temper, but age and the burdens of office had mellowed him. His strong arm maintained the discipline of law and empire, and the various tribes and factions across the Muslim world reposed implicit confidence in his integrity. He was the first to assume the title Amir al-Mu’minin, or "Commander of the Faithful."
The Election of 'Othman
Following the death of 'Omar, the six Electors he had appointed met to choose the next Caliph. After two days of unprofitable wrangling, 'Abd ar-Rahman offered to forgo his own claim if the others would abide by his choice. The rest agreed, and the contest narrowed to 'Ali and 'Othman, who represented the rival Hashimite and Umeiyad houses of the Koreish tribe.
That night, 'Abd ar-Rahman consulted with each of the Electors and other leading citizens. The next morning, the Great Mosque was filled with an anxious crowd. 'Abd ar-Rahman first addressed 'Ali, asking, "Dost thou bind thyself by the covenant of the Lord to do all according to the Book of the Lord, the example of the Prophet, and the precedent of his Successors?" 'Ali replied cautiously, "I hope that I should do so; I will act according to the best of my knowledge and ability." 'Abd ar-Rahman then put the same question to 'Othman, who answered with an unconditional, "Yea, I will."
At this, 'Abd ar-Rahman raised his face to heaven, took 'Othman by the hand, and prayed for God's blessing on his choice. He then pledged his allegiance, and the people crowded in to do the same. 'Ali, after a moment's hesitation, also came forward and swore his loyalty. Thus 'Othman, at nearly seventy years of age, became the third Caliph of Islam.
The Murder of Al-Hormuzan
The first case brought before the new Caliph was a difficult one. In the confusion following 'Omar's assassination, his son 'Obeidallah, in a fit of rage and grief, sought revenge. Believing there had been a conspiracy, he killed Al-Hormuzan, the Persian noble who had converted to Islam, as well as a daughter of the assassin Abu Lu'lu'a and a Christian slave.
Sa'd, incensed at the murder of his slave, seized 'Obeidallah and brought him before 'Othman. A council was called. 'Ali argued that according to the law, 'Obeidallah must be put to death for having slain a believer without due cause. Others were shocked at the proposal. "But yesterday," they said, "the Commander of the Faithful lost his life, and today thou wilt put his son to death!" Moved by this appeal, 'Othman decided against execution. He assumed the responsibility of naming a money compensation in lieu of blood, which he paid himself. The decision caused some discontent, and people said that the new Caliph was already departing from the strict letter of the law.
As one of his first acts, 'Othman also increased the stipends of the chief men, a departure from the more austere practice of his predecessor.
Growing Internal Divisions
The twelve-year reign of 'Othman is often divided into a popular first half and an unpopular second half, during which discontent ripened into sedition. The causes of this growing unpopularity were twofold. First, there was a rising antagonism between the Arab nation at large, especially in the turbulent garrison cities of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra, and the perceived arrogance and privilege of the ruling Koreish tribe. Second, jealousies festered within the Koreish tribe itself, particularly between the house of Hashim (the Prophet's clan, to which 'Ali belonged) and the house of Umeiya, from which 'Othman came.
These tensions were dangerously inflamed by the Caliph's weakness and his marked favoritism toward his Umeiyad kinsmen. Many Umeiyads had been late converts to Islam and had even opposed the Prophet, yet 'Othman now elevated them to the highest offices of the empire. This nepotism alienated the Hashimites, who began to promote the claims of 'Ali, and angered the broader Muslim community, who saw the Caliphate falling into the hands of a worldly and opportunistic clique.
Campaigns in the East and West
Despite the growing strife at home, the Muslim armies continued to expand the empire's borders. In the East, the last Sasanian king, Yezdejird, was finally hunted down and assassinated in a miller's hut near Merv, bringing the ancient dynasty to an end. Campaigns against the Turks and Khazars near the Caspian Sea continued, though with mixed success and occasional serious reverses.
In Syria, 'Othman confirmed Mu'awiya as governor. Mu'awiya successfully repulsed Byzantine attacks and overran Asia Minor, pushing as far as the Black Sea. He even led an expedition along the coast towards Constantinople itself. In Egypt, 'Othman's appointment of his foster-brother, Ibn abi Sarh, to a position of power led to a bitter conflict with the original conqueror, 'Amr, who was eventually deposed. Ibn abi Sarh then carried his arms vigorously along the coast of North Africa, defeating the Byzantine governor Gregory in a major battle.
The Rise of Naval Power
Reversing the cautious policy of his predecessor 'Omar, who distrusted the sea, 'Othman gave Mu'awiya permission to build a fleet. This new naval power was first used to conquer the island of Cyprus. A few years later, the Byzantines, seriously threatened by the new Muslim presence at sea, gathered a fleet of some 500 vessels to challenge the Arabs.
Ibn abi Sarh, the governor of Egypt, met this challenge with a smaller but valiant squadron. The two fleets met near Alexandria in what became known as the "Battle of the Masts." After a night spent in prayer by the Muslims and the clanging of bells by the Greeks, the battle began. The Arab ships grappled with their adversaries, and a fierce hand-to-hand encounter with swords and daggers ensued. The Greeks were unable to withstand the wild onset of the Saracens, and their fleet was broken and dispersed. The Byzantine commander fled to Syracuse, where he was killed by his own people. This decisive victory established Muslim naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean.
Unrest in Al-Kufa and Al-Basra
During the latter part of 'Othman's reign, his appointments of governors in the turbulent cities of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra fueled his growing unpopularity. In Al-Kufa, he replaced the respected Sa'd with his own half-brother, Al-Welid ibn 'Okba. Though a brave warrior, Al-Welid's intemperate habits gave his enemies an opening. After it was established that he had conducted morning prayers while drunk, the scandal was so great that he was recalled to Medina, publicly scourged, and deposed.
In Al-Basra, the popular governor Abu Musa was also deposed and replaced by 'Othman's young cousin, Ibn 'Amir. Though Ibn 'Amir proved to be an able and successful commander, quelling rebellions throughout Persia, his appointment was seen as another instance of the Caliph's nepotism, favoring his own Umeiyad clan.
The Recension of the Kor'an
A major cause of discontent was 'Othman's recension of the Kor'an. As the Muslim armies spread across the empire, variations in the recitation of the sacred text began to emerge in different provinces. A commander named Hodheifa, witnessing these differences on the battlefield, returned to the Caliph gravely concerned and urged him to restore the unity of the divine word before believers began to differ in their scripture as the Jews and Christians had.
'Othman, advised by the leading Companions, appointed a committee of Koreish experts to collate the various manuscripts with the original text that had been compiled under Abu Bekr. Once a standard, authoritative version was complete, the Caliph ordered that all other copies throughout the empire be burned. While intended to prevent schism, this act was viewed by many, particularly in Al-Kufa, as a sacrilege. They accused the Caliph of destroying the Word of God and of undermining the authority of early Companions who had their own revered copies.
The Exile of Abu Dharr
The story of Abu Dharr, an early and pious convert, became another major grievance. An ascetic, Abu Dharr was appalled by the growing luxury and worldliness of Muslim society, especially in the court of Mu'awiya in Syria. He preached repentance with fiery zeal, denouncing the rich and powerful and declaring that their wealth would become red-hot irons to sear them in hell.
His sermons gained a popular following but were seen as a dangerously disturbing influence by the authorities. Mu'awiya sent him to Medina, where he continued his tirades. Unwilling to punish the revered Companion but unable to silence him, 'Othman eventually exiled him to the remote desert of Ar-Rabadha, where he died a few years later in poverty. The harsh treatment of such a venerable figure was seized upon by the Caliph's enemies as proof of his tyranny.
Other Causes of Unpopularity
Other acts further damaged the Caliph's reputation. When he enlarged the sacred square around the Ka'ba, he imprisoned homeowners who complained about the compensation offered, a stark contrast to 'Omar's more diplomatic approach. He also made changes to the pilgrimage rituals at Mina, which were seen as unwelcome innovations.
To crown his ill-fortune, 'Othman lost the Prophet's silver signet-ring, which had been worn by Abu Bekr and 'Omar as well. He had been supervising the deepening of a well when the ring slipped from his finger and was lost forever. This was widely regarded as a terrible omen, signifying that the grace which had attended the Caliphate was now gone. Every grievance, real or imagined, was now magnified and used to fuel the growing clamor against the unfortunate Caliph.
The Seeds of Sedition
Towards the close of 'Othman's reign, the hidden ferment of rebellion began to break to the surface. A Jewish convert from Arabia named Ibn Saba' traveled through the garrison cities of Al-Basra, Al-Kufa, and Syria, spreading seditious doctrines. He taught that, like the Messiah, Mohammad would one day return, and that until then, 'Ali was his rightful legatee. Expelled from city after city, he eventually found a safe haven in Egypt, where he became a setter-forth of these strange and startling ideas that would fuel the growing anti-Umeiyad movement.
Outbreak in Al-Kufa
Open dissatisfaction first broke out in Al-Kufa. The governor, Sa'id, an Umeiyad appointee, enraged the city's leading men by arrogantly referring to the rich lands of Al-'Irak as the "garden of Koreish." A chief named Al-Ashtar angrily retorted, "The man who thinks that which the Lord hath given us as a portion for our swords is a garden for him and for his fellows!" A riot ensued, and though it was quelled, the Caliph ordered the ten ringleaders, including Al-Ashtar, to be exiled to Syria.
In Syria, Mu'awiya attempted to reason with the exiles, lecturing them on the duty of obedience and the pre-eminence of the Koreish tribe. They remained defiant, and after a month were sent to Hims for harsher treatment. Their spirit was eventually broken, and they were released.
'Othman's Pitiable Weakness
Months later, the governor Sa'id made the ill-advised decision to visit 'Othman in Medina. In his absence, the conspirators in Al-Kufa, joined by the returned exiles, came to the front. Led by Al-Ashtar, they openly rebelled, took an oath to depose Sa'id, and marched out to intercept him on his return journey, forcing him to turn back to Medina.
The rebels in Al-Kufa then sent a deputation to the Caliph demanding the appointment of their own choice for governor: the popular but previously deposed Abu Musa. In an act of pitiable weakness, 'Othman gave in. He deposed his own governor and appointed the rebels' nominee. This capitulation was a fatal error; it showed the insurgents that they could defy the Caliph with impunity and emboldened them to press their demands further.
'Ali's Warning and the Caliph's Defense
'Ali, seeing the gravity of the situation, went to 'Othman and warned him. Speaking for the people, he complained of the Caliph's nepotism, pointing to the unchecked power of relatives like Mu'awiya. He reminded 'Othman that 'Omar had kept his lieutenants in firm order, while 'Othman treated his kinsmen softly.
In response, 'Othman went to the pulpit of the Mosque and addressed the people. He reproached them for following evil leaders and hiding his virtues. He argued that they complained about things they had cheerfully accepted from the sterner hand of 'Omar. He claimed that he had been more lenient and had worked for their prosperity, but his speech failed to pacify the crowd. His enemies, now convinced of his weakness, grew ever bolder, and the Caliph's unfortunate reign hastened towards its tragic end.
The Eroding Authority of the Caliph
As the outlook darkened, the Caliph's authority continued to erode. Personal reverence for the "Successor of the Prophet" was replaced by disregard and disrespect. In the streets of Medina, 'Othman was greeted with cries demanding that he depose his unpopular governors. He found support only among his immediate kinsmen, which only aggravated the hostile clamor.
Meanwhile, the conspirators in Al-Kufa, Al-Basra, and Egypt burrowed deeper, coordinating their efforts through a secret correspondence of forged letters and clandestine messages. Though a general feeling of impending disaster was in the air, the plot remained veiled in secrecy. Advised by his counselors, 'Othman dispatched trusted followers to the main provincial centers to report on the situation. Three returned saying they found no unusual signs of trouble, but the fourth, 'Ammar, was won over by the Egyptian faction and never returned.
The Conference of Governors
Hoping to address the crisis, 'Othman summoned his provincial governors to Medina. When they assembled, he asked for their counsel. Each offered advice reflecting their own character: one suggested executing the ringleaders, another advised distracting the populace with foreign wars, while a third proposed buying off the malcontents with money and gifts.
The most comprehensive advice came from Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria. He urged a firm and just administration to quell discontent, while also sending trusted men to deal with the seditious factions. Recognizing the immediate danger to the Caliph's person in Medina, he made three specific offers: to send a strong Syrian army to guard the city; to have 'Othman himself move to the safety of loyal Syria; or to take command of the Syrian forces himself to put down the conspiracy.
'Othman's Fatal Refusal
The aged Caliph rejected all of Mu'awiya's proposals. He replied, "Even to save my life I will not quit the land wherein the Prophet sojourned, nor the City wherein his sacred body resteth." He also refused to bring a Syrian army to Medina, declaring he would never impose an armed force on the people who lived around the Prophet's home.
Seeing the Caliph's resolve, Mu'awiya replied, "In that case, I see naught but destruction awaiting thee." "Then the Lord be my defense," exclaimed the Caliph, "and that sufficeth for me." Bidding him a final farewell, Mu'awiya departed, never to see him again. As he left the city, he passed a group of leading Koreish, including 'Ali and Az-Zubeir, and warned them, "To you I commit this helpless aged man. Help him, and it will be the better for you."
The Ruse of the Conspirators
Bands of conspirators, numbering several hundred each, marched from Egypt, Al-Kufa, and Al-Basra towards Medina, arriving in the month of Shawwal under the guise of performing the annual pilgrimage. Finding the city in a state of defense and unable to gain entry, they feigned departure. A short distance from the city, they "intercepted" a messenger carrying a letter, seemingly from 'Othman to the governor of Egypt, ordering the execution of the rebel leaders upon their return. The letter was sealed with a counterfeit of the Caliph's seal, and was likely the work of 'Othman's treacherous secretary, Merwan.
Armed with this supposed evidence of the Caliph's treachery, the rebel bands turned back to Medina. This time, the citizens, shocked by the apparent perfidy, sympathized with the insurgents. The conspirators, no longer opposed, laid siege to the Caliph's palace.
The Siege of the Palace
Trapped and helpless, 'Othman addressed the people from the roof of his palace, appealing to the memory of his long service to Islam, but to no avail. The siege tightened, and the rebels gained control of the city. A few days later, during a Friday sermon in the Great Mosque, a tumult arose, and 'Othman was struck by a shower of stones. He fell from the pulpit and was carried unconscious to his home.
The blockade lasted for several weeks. The rebels cut off all supplies, and the small garrison suffered from a severe lack of water. 'Ali and one of the Prophet's widows, Um Habiba, both attempted to bring water to the beleaguered household but were roughly driven back. The sons of the leading Companions, including 'Ali's sons Al-Hasan and Al-Hosein, stood guard at the palace gate to defend the Caliph.
As the annual pilgrimage to Mecca approached, 'Othman, mindful of his duties, appointed a leader for the pilgrim caravan. This act further weakened his small band of defenders. News that relief armies were finally on their way from Syria and Basra spurred the rebels to make a final, murderous assault.
The Assassination of 'Othman
The insurgents set fire to the palace gates and, after a brief struggle with the defenders, forced their way into the compound. They then rushed into the Caliph's private apartment, where they found the aged monarch, now eighty-two years old, reading the Kor'an.
The first to approach was Mohammad, the son of Abu Bekr, who seized the Caliph by the beard. 'Othman calmly appealed to the memory of his attacker's father, which shamed Mohammad, and he withdrew. Other insurgent leaders, with no such scruples, then rushed in. They smote the Caliph with their swords and trampled on the Kor'an. 'Othman's faithful wife, Na'ila, cast herself upon her wounded husband to shield him, and in the process, a sword-cut severed several of her fingers. The insurgents plunged their weapons into the Caliph's body until he fell lifeless to the ground.
The palace was then plundered. For three days, the body of the murdered Caliph lay unburied. Finally, a few of his friends secretly interred the body at night in the Jewish burial ground, as the public cemetery was guarded by the rebels.
The Election of 'Ali
In the days of anarchy that followed the murder of 'Othman, the city of Medina was controlled by the regicides. After five days, the rebels insisted that the citizens elect a new Caliph before they would depart. 'Ali, a natural candidate, initially held back, offering to swear allegiance to either Talha or Az-Zubeir. However, under intense pressure from the rebels and entreated by the leading citizens, he finally consented.
In the Great Mosque, homage was sworn to him. But the election was marred by the circumstances; several leading men refused to take the oath, while others, like Talha and Az-Zubeir, did so only under compulsion. 'Ali, now Caliph, was lenient and did not press those who were hesitant. Having accomplished their goal, the insurgent bands departed for their homes in Egypt, Al-Kufa, and Al-Basra.
The Cry for Vengeance from Syria
'Ali’s reign began under the darkest of clouds. The murder of a Caliph had loosened the bonds of society, and bands of Bedouins, sensing plunder, lingered around Medina. The most pressing challenge, however, was the cry for vengeance for 'Othman's death. The murdered Caliph's kinsmen had fled to Mecca, vowing revenge. More ominously, 'Othman's blood-stained shirt, along with the severed fingers of his wife Na'ila, had been carried to Damascus and laid at the feet of Mu'awiya.
Mu'awiya hung these powerful symbols in the Damascus Mosque. The sight maddened the Syrian populace, and sixty thousand men gathered around the relics, weeping and swearing an oath to avenge the Caliph's murder.
In Medina, 'Ali was in a helpless position. He was urged by Talha and Az-Zubeir to punish the murderers, but he argued that he lacked the power. The regicides and their supporters were now a powerful faction within his own camp, and he felt it was impossible to act against them until the empire was again united under his rule.
'Ali's Fateful Decision
The new Caliph's first major decision was to depose all the governors appointed by 'Othman. He was strongly advised against this precipitous move by counselors like Al-Mogira and his own cousin, Ibn al-'Abbas, who urged him at least to retain Mu'awiya in Syria until his own authority was consolidated. 'Ali, however, stubbornly rejected their advice and dispatched his own governors to the provinces.
While his new appointees were accepted in Egypt, Al-Basra, and the Yemen, his governor for Syria was stopped at the border by Mu'awiya's forces. Mu'awiya's stance was defiant: he would not pay homage until those who had murdered his kinsman 'Othman were brought to justice.
War Proclaimed
'Ali sent another envoy to Damascus, calling on Mu'awiya to submit. The envoy was kept waiting for a long time before being sent back with a threatening reply. The messenger reported that he had left behind sixty thousand warriors in Damascus, weeping under 'Othman's bloody shirt and bent on revenging his death on 'Ali himself.
Seeing that Mu'awiya was hopelessly alienated and that there was no room left for compromise, 'Ali proclaimed war. He declared his intention to march on Syria and called the people of Medina, Al-Kufa, and Egypt to arms.
'Aisha's Rebellion in Mecca
While 'Ali prepared for war with Syria, a new and dangerous rebellion was forming in Mecca. 'Aisha, the Prophet's widow, was on her way home from the pilgrimage when she learned of 'Othman's murder and 'Ali's accession to the Caliphate. Enraged, she cried, "Carry me back to Mecca! They have murdered the Caliph. I will avenge his blood."
'Aisha had long held animosity towards 'Ali, and she now used her considerable influence to plot against him. In Mecca, the disaffected gathered around her as she delivered fiery speeches, denouncing the murder that had desecrated the Prophet's city. She was soon joined by Talha and Az-Zubeir, two of the most distinguished Companions, who had fled Medina claiming their oath of allegiance to 'Ali was forced. The rebellion gained significant funding when the deposed Umeiyad governor of the Yemen arrived with the provincial treasure.
The March on Al-Basra
The rebel leaders, now at the head of a 3,000-strong army, debated where to strike. A direct march on Medina was deemed too risky. An advance on Syria was pointless, as Mu'awiya already held it and was pursuing the same cause. They therefore decided to march on the great military city of Al-Basra, where both Talha and Az-Zubeir had a strong following. 'Aisha, seated in her camel-litter, accompanied the army.
On the journey, a strange and ominous event occurred. As the army passed a settlement called Al-Hau'ab, the dogs of the village barked furiously at 'Aisha's camel. Terrified, she remembered a prophecy of Mohammad, who had once warned that one of his wives would go astray and be barked at by the dogs of Al-Hau'ab. "Carry me back!" she screamed, refusing to go any further. It was only after 'Abdallah, son of Az-Zubeir, brought fifty Bedouins to falsely swear that the place was not Al-Hau'ab that she was persuaded to continue. This act of deliberate deceit cast a dark stain upon the enterprise.
The Seizure of Al-Basra
'Ali, learning of the rebels' march, pursued them from Medina but halted in Nejd, his force too small to engage them. The rebel army, meanwhile, reached Al-Basra. 'Ali's governor, Ibn Honeif, confronted them, but the city itself was divided. A battle ensued but was halted by a truce. It was agreed that an envoy would be sent to Medina to discover whether Talha and Az-Zubeir had indeed been coerced into their oath.
When the envoy returned from Medina with an inconclusive report, the rebels broke the truce. In a surprise night attack, they overpowered the governor's guards in the Mosque, captured him, and seized control of the city. Ibn Honeif was dragged out, his hair and beard were plucked out, and he was beaten and imprisoned before finally being allowed to leave. The rebels then took possession of the treasury, putting its loyal guards, who had been taken by surprise, to the sword in a cruel massacre.
'Ali Gathers His Army
Finding his force too small to engage the rebels, 'Ali halted on the road to Al-Basra and sent a summons for reinforcements to Al-Kufa, promising to make it his seat of government
A Failed Compromise
Now commanding a strong army, 'Ali advanced on Al-Basra, but his thoughts were still for peace
This peaceful resolution, however, alarmed the regicides in 'Ali's army. Fearing that a settlement would lead to their own destruction, they held a secret council and resolved to force a battle
The Battle of the Camel
Az-Zubeir, having had a change of heart after speaking with 'Ali, left the battlefield
The battle, which came to be known as the "Battle of the Camel," raged most fiercely around her litter
'Ali's Magnanimity in Victory
'Ali gave strict orders that no fugitive should be pursued, no wounded soldier slain, and no plunder seized
He treated 'Aisha with the utmost reverence due to a "Spouse of the Prophet"
Al-Kufa Becomes the New Capital
In January 657, 'Ali entered Al-Kufa and, after some deliberation, decided to make it the capital of his Caliphate. He rejected suggestions to return to Medina, arguing that the Prophet's city lacked the men and resources needed for the impending struggle with Syria. Al-Kufa, by contrast, was a central garrison city, filled with veteran warriors upon whom he depended.
However, the city was also a hotbed of factionalism. The regicide party, led by Al-Ashtar, quickly grew discontented, complaining that 'Ali was appointing his own relatives to governorships instead of rewarding them for their role in his victory. At the same time, the seeds of the Khariji or "Theocratic" party began to sprout, a group that rejected all human rulers in favor of the rule of God alone. Another sign of the breakdown of order was a rebellion by the lower classes of Al-Basra, who went forth and seized the province of Sijistan.
The Governorship of Egypt
'Ali's handling of the governorship of Egypt proved to be a critical error. His initial appointee, Keis, was an able and wise ruler who kept the province peaceful. He adopted a lenient policy, allowing the party that sought vengeance for 'Othman to remain neutral and unmolested in a frontier district.
Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria, tried to win Keis over to his side. When that failed, he resorted to craft and intrigue, spreading rumors that Keis was secretly siding with him. These reports, deliberately circulated, reached 'Ali's court and sowed suspicion against the loyal governor. Influenced by these rumors, 'Ali ordered Keis to take harsh measures against the neutral party. Keis refused, arguing that such an impolitic move would drive them into open rebellion. Doubting his loyalty, 'Ali recalled Keis and replaced him with the young and rash Mohammad, son of Abu Bekr.
Mohammad reversed Keis's moderate policies at once, demanding that the neutral faction submit to his authority or quit the province. His harsh approach backfired disastrously, alienating the party and driving them into the arms of Mu'awiya, thus strengthening the Syrian cause.
Mu'awiya Consolidates His Power
Mu'awiya's position was further bolstered by the arrival in Damascus of the astute and experienced 'Amr ibn al-'As. After 'Ali's victory at the Battle of the Camel, 'Amr, seeing that 'Ali was now too powerful for him to remain neutral, threw his full support behind Mu'awiya. This coalition, and 'Ali's misstep in Egypt, materially strengthened Mu'awiya's hands.
'Ali's victory at Al-Basra had also inadvertently helped his Syrian rival by eliminating his only other competitors, Talha and Az-Zubeir. The stage was now set for a direct conflict between the two remaining powers. While Mu'awiya ruled over a loyal and orderly Syria, 'Ali's authority rested on the turbulent and factious Arab tribes of Al-'Irak and Egypt—a perilous foundation for the struggle to come.
'Ali Invades Syria
After a final, fruitless attempt to persuade Mu'awiya to submit, 'Ali marched from Al-Kufa with an army of 50,000 men to invade Syria. He traveled up the Tigris, crossed the Mesopotamian desert, and reached the Euphrates at Ar-Rakka. There, he forced the unfriendly inhabitants to construct a bridge of boats for his army to cross.
Mu'awiya, with a much larger force, was soon at the front to meet him. The two armies encamped at Siffin, a plain on the western bank of the Euphrates. Mu'awiya's forces, having arrived first, held the access to the river. After a sharp skirmish, 'Ali's men won control of the waterway. A month then passed in desultory fighting, with one column from each side engaging in combat each day, as both sides were reluctant to precipitate a full-scale battle that could destroy the flower of Islam.
The Battle of Siffin
In the second month of the standoff (Safar, 37 A.H.), the main battle began. It raged for several days with great slaughter. The ninety-year-old Companion 'Ammar, a leading regicide, was slain fighting for 'Ali. His death caused dismay in the Syrian ranks, as a prophecy of Mohammad foretold that 'Ammar would be killed by a "godless and rebellious race." The quick-witted 'Amr, however, turned the omen aside by retorting, "And who is it that hath killed 'Ammar, but 'Ali and the rebellious race that have brought him hither?"
The fighting climaxed in a night-long struggle known as the "Night of Clangour." By morning, 'Ali's general Al-Ashtar had driven the Syrian army back, and victory for 'Ali seemed imminent.
The Ruse of the Kor'ans
At this critical moment, with his army on the verge of defeat, Mu'awiya adopted a stratagem proposed by the cunning 'Amr. He had his soldiers fix leaves of the Kor'an to the points of their lances. Raising them aloft, they cried out along the line of battle, "The law of the Lord! The law of the Lord! Let that decide betwixt us!"
The men of Al-Kufa immediately fell into the trap. Led by the party of "Readers," they stopped fighting and re-echoed the cry. 'Ali rode among them, warning them that it was a trick. "It is the device of evil men," he cried, "afraid of defeat, they seek their end by guile." But it was in vain. His mutinous troops threatened that if he did not agree to the proposal, they would desert him, deliver him to the enemy, or kill him as they had killed 'Othman.
The Arbitration Agreement
Seeing opposition was futile, the helpless Caliph was forced to agree to arbitration. He recalled the victorious Al-Ashtar from the field, who returned reproaching his comrades for their folly. The Syrians nominated 'Amr as their umpire. 'Ali's troops, in their contumacy, rejected his own nominees and insisted on the appointment of Abu Musa, the former governor of Al-Kufa who had been deposed for his neutrality. 'Ali was forced to accept the pious but simple-minded Abu Musa, who was no match for the crafty 'Amr.
An agreement was drawn up. In a significant concession, 'Ali allowed his title "Commander of the Faithful" to be struck from the document when 'Amr objected to it. The deed bound both sides to follow the judgment of the two umpires, who were to decide the dispute according to the dictates of the Kor'an, with the goal of restoring peace and unity to the empire. The armies then retired, and the two umpires agreed to meet for their verdict in the following month of Ramadan.
The Rise of the Theocrats
The decision to halt the battle at Siffin and submit to arbitration soon led to bitter regret among the very party that had demanded it. Known as the "Readers" or "Theocrats," they were fighting not for 'Ali personally, but against the supremacy of the Koreish tribe and for an ideal of a government ruled by God alone. They quickly realized that the appointed umpires would only decide between 'Ali and Mu'awiya, and that no matter the verdict, a worldly despotism would be riveted more firmly upon them. Their dream of a theocracy had been lost.
Arguing angrily among themselves, a body of 12,000 men separated from 'Ali's main army on the march home. They avoided entering Al-Kufa and established their own camp in the nearby village of Harura. They chose a temporary leader and adopted a new creed and war-cry: "No rule but that of the Lord alone!" They declared that by submitting the divine authority of the Caliphate to human judgment, 'Ali had committed a grave sin and thereby forfeited his right to their allegiance. They became known as the Khawarij, or "those who go forth."
'Ali's Appeal to the Rebels
This new rebellion at his own doorstep forced 'Ali to postpone his planned return to war with Syria. He first sent his cousin, Ibn al-'Abbas, to reason with the dissidents, but they refused to listen to him. 'Ali then went in person to their camp at Harura.
He patiently argued with the rebel leaders, reminding them that it was their own pressure on the battlefield that had forced him to accept the arbitration against his better judgment. He acknowledged that the act itself was a departure from the ideal, but one of necessity. Conceding their main point, he declared, "The Lord alone is the Judge," and he made a solemn promise: he would abide by the arbitration only if the umpires' decision was in accordance with the Kor'an. If it were not, he would reject it and once again lead them to fight against their common enemy in Syria.
Pacified by these assurances, the Khawarij were persuaded to break up their camp and return to their homes in Al-Kufa, there to await the final decision of the umpires.
The Conference of the Umpires
At the appointed time, the two umpires, Abu Musa representing 'Ali and 'Amr representing Mu'awiya, met at Dumat al-Jandal to decide the future of the Caliphate. A great assembly of the leading men from Mecca, Medina, Al-'Irak, and Syria gathered to witness the momentous decision.
In a private conference, the crafty 'Amr began by deferring to the piety and seniority of Abu Musa. He then proposed what seemed to be a fair and righteous solution to the civil war: for the good of Islam, both 'Ali and Mu'awiya should be set aside, and the people should then be free to elect a new Caliph. The simple and honest Abu Musa, desiring peace above all, readily agreed to this plan. As they prepared to announce their joint verdict, 'Amr insisted that Abu Musa, as the senior and more honored man, should be the first to address the assembly.
A Cunning Betrayal
The people waited in breathless expectation as the two umpires emerged from their tent. Abu Musa advanced and, in a loud, clear voice, pronounced his judgment: "We see no other course for peace and concord, but to depose 'Ali and Mu'awiya, both one and other. After that, ye shall yourselves choose a fit man in their room."
He then stepped aside, and 'Amr came forward. "Ye have heard the sentence of Abu Musa," he declared. "He hath deposed his fellow. As for me, I depose him, even as I do this turban from my head." He then cast his turban to the ground. "And," he continued, "I confirm my master Mu'awiya, as the worthiest to be the Successor of 'Othman and avenger of his blood."
The Aftermath
The assembly was thrown into an uproar. Abu Musa, realizing he had been outrageously tricked, turned on 'Amr and cursed him, but 'Amr only mocked him in return. The Syrian contingent shouted their applause, while the party of 'Ali was stunned by the treachery. Disgraced and helpless, Abu Musa fled to Mecca to live in obscurity.
'Amr returned in triumph to Damascus, where Mu'awiya was saluted as Caliph by the Syrian host. When 'Ali in Al-Kufa heard the news, he was enraged. In response, he added a formal petition to the daily public prayers, cursing Mu'awiya, 'Amr, and their chief adherents by name. Mu'awiya was not slow to retaliate, and the Muslim world was presented with the spectacle of the two rival commanders of the faithful anathematizing each other in their mosques.
'Ali's Call to War and the Khariji Defiance
Following the disastrous arbitration, 'Ali was not content with merely cursing his rival. He resolved to immediately renew hostilities with Syria and denounced the umpires as apostates who had cast the Book of the Lord behind their backs. He called his followers to prepare for a new campaign, telling them, "We must fight our battle over again at the point where, on the eve of victory, we were forced to leave it off."
The Khawarij, or Theocratic separatists, however, had other plans. Instead of rejoining 'Ali as they had previously indicated, their fanaticism had only grown. They declared that 'Ali's submission to human arbitration was a grave sin, and they sent him an insolent message: if 'Ali would acknowledge his own apostasy and repent, they would consider rejoining him; otherwise, they cast him off as a heretic.
Atrocities at Nahrawan
While 'Ali's new army of 60,000 men gathered outside Al-Kufa, the Khawarij refused to join. Instead, they departed for Nahrawan, on the bank of the Tigris river. On their march, they began to commit savage atrocities. They interrogated travelers on their views of 'Othman and 'Ali, and brutally murdered any who did not share their extremist opinions. Among their victims was a Companion of the Prophet, 'Abdallah ibn Khabbab, whom they killed along with his wife, who was pregnant.
News of these outrages reached 'Ali's army as it was marching towards Syria. The soldiers were horrified and refused to advance further, demanding that the Caliph first deal with the "godless schismatics" who were murdering believers in their rear. Left with no choice, 'Ali changed his course and marched against the Khariji camp at Nahrawan.
The Battle and Massacre
'Ali first sent a messenger demanding that the Khawarij surrender the murderers among them for justice. They defiantly replied that they were all equally responsible for the blood of the "ungodly heretics" they had slain. 'Ali then rode to their lines himself and offered quarter to anyone who would come over to his army or retire peacefully to their homes.
His appeal was partially successful. Some came over, and many more dispersed, leaving only 1,800 hardcore fanatics on the field. With the wild battle-cry "To Paradise!", this remnant rushed upon the lances of the Caliph's vastly superior force. They were slain to a man. 'Ali's losses were trifling.
Aftermath
The victory, however, proved disastrous for 'Ali's larger goals. His army, having crushed the rebellion, lost all enthusiasm for the Syrian campaign. Arguing that they needed to rest and replenish their arms, the soldiers persuaded the weary Caliph to let them return to Al-Kufa for a short time. Once there, they melted away to their homes. The planned invasion of Syria was aborted, and 'Ali never again had the opportunity to march against Mu'awiya.
Though crushed at Nahrawan, the Khariji movement was not destroyed. The "snake," as an annalist wrote, "was scotched, not killed." The survivors, embittered by the massacre of their comrades, spread their fanatical and seditious doctrines throughout the empire, becoming a persistent thorn in the side of the Caliphate and a terror to well-disposed communities for generations to come.
'Ali's Weakness and Mu'awiya's Opportunity
The disastrous aftermath of the Battle of Nahrawan left 'Ali's authority severely weakened. His army was discontented and weary of civil war, forcing him to abandon his planned invasion of Syria. Mu'awiya, seeing his rival's weakness, turned his attention to the rich and crucial province of Egypt.
Egypt was in a precarious state. 'Ali's governor, Mohammad son of Abu Bekr, held the capital, Fustat, with a small force of loyal troops. However, the rest of the country was controlled by a powerful faction that, having been alienated by Mohammad's rash policies, now leaned towards Mu'awiya. Recognizing his opportunity, Mu'awiya commissioned 'Amr, the original and popular conqueror of Egypt, to retake the province.
The Conquest of Egypt
'Amr invaded Egypt with a force of 6,000 men and was immediately joined by the large neutral faction. 'Ali, upon hearing of the threat, frantically tried to send reinforcements to his governor. He dispatched a column of 2,000 men, but they loitered on the way. Another levy was called, but the people of Al-Kufa were so slow to respond that the aid never arrived.
Left to fend for himself, Mohammad and his small army were no match for 'Amr's combined forces. They were defeated in a battle, and Mohammad, attempting to flee in disguise, was discovered and killed. In a final act of barbaric cruelty, his body was placed in the carcass of an ass and burned. The news of this indignity deeply distressed his sister, 'Aisha, in Medina.
When news of the disaster reached 'Ali, he was overcome with grief. He ascended the pulpit and bitterly upbraided the people for their spiritless and disloyal attitude. For fifty days, he told them, he had been urging them to go forth to help their brethren. "And now," he said in grief, "the son of Abu Bekr has fallen a martyr, and Egypt hath departed from us."
Internal Rebellions
The final years of 'Ali's reign were plagued by constant struggle. Following the loss of Egypt, the Caliph withdrew into privacy, and Mu'awiya seized the opportunity to foment rebellion in Al-Basra. He sent an emissary who successfully rallied the party seeking to avenge 'Othman, forcing 'Ali's acting governor, Ziyad, to retreat into the citadel. 'Ali dispatched a force that, after a fierce battle at the city gate, finally quelled the uprising
At the same time, the Khariji threat persisted. A new rebellion broke out on the Persian frontier. The army at Al-Kufa, weary of fighting, was reluctant to march until 'Ali delivered a powerful speech, shaming them into action
Syrian Raids into Arabia
With 'Ali weakened by internal strife, Mu'awiya began to harass his territory with raids. One Syrian column made an incursion across Mesopotamia, encamping for some days on the banks of the Tigris before returning unmolested
A far more serious raid was undertaken by a cruel captain named Busr, who marched into Arabia with 3,000 men to secure the allegiance of the Holy Cities for Mu'awiya. 'Ali's governor fled Medina, and Busr entered unopposed. He forced the citizens to swear allegiance to Mu'awiya under threat of death. He then proceeded to Mecca and on to the Yemen, where he committed savage atrocities. The most infamous of these was the murder of the two infant children of 'Ali's cousin, 'Obeidallah, who was then governor. Busr seized the children from their mother and put them to death in cold blood
Enraged and heartbroken by these events, 'Ali sent a force in pursuit, but it was too late. The peninsula was left bitterly divided, with some parts recognizing Mu'awiya and others remaining loyal to 'Ali
Defections and a Final Truce
These troubles were compounded by personal grief. 'Ali's cousin, 'Abdallah, whom he had made governor of Al-Basra, was accused of financial irregularities. Scorning the demand for an accounting, he abandoned his post and retired to Mecca with the treasury's funds. 'Ali's own brother, 'Akil, also deserted him and went over to Mu'awiya
Crowded by these events, 'Ali's spirit was finally broken. He no longer had the heart to carry on the war with Syria. A truce was at last concluded, in which the two rivals agreed to lay down their arms and maintain the existing borders. 'Ali was to retain Al-'Irak and Persia, while Mu'awiya would hold Syria and Egypt. The treaty stipulated that each ruler would be responsible for dealing with any Khariji outbreaks within their own territories
The Khariji Conspiracy
The truce between 'Ali and Mu'awiya did not bring peace to the Khawarij. Embittered by their defeat at Nahrawan and still holding to their fanatical creed, they continued to plot. During the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, three of these zealots met and lamented the state of the Muslim world. They concluded that the troubles of Islam were caused by three men: 'Ali, Mu'awiya, and 'Amr. They made a solemn pact to rid the world of all three, each conspirator choosing one to assassinate. They armed themselves with poisoned swords and set the same day for the attacks: Friday, the 17th of Ramadan.
The plot was only partially successful. In Fustat, 'Amr was sick that day, and the captain of his guard, who was leading the prayers in his place, was killed by the assassin by mistake. In Damascus, Mu'awiya was struck by the assassin's sword but the wound was not fatal; he survived, though the remedy he chose rendered him unable to have any more children.
The Assassination of 'Ali
In Al-Kufa, the assassin Ibn Muljam found accomplices from a tribe that had suffered severely at the Battle of Nahrawan and nursed a deep resentment against 'Ali. He was further incited by a beautiful woman from the tribe who had lost her father and brother in the battle; she demanded the head of 'Ali as her dower.
On the appointed Friday morning, the assassins lay in wait by the door of the Great Mosque. As 'Ali entered, calling out for people to come to prayer, they rushed upon him. One sword missed, but Ibn Muljam's poisoned blade struck the Caliph on his head. 'Ali was carried into his house, mortally wounded. The assassin was captured and brought before him.
The Death of the Caliph
It soon became clear that the wound was fatal. When asked if he wished to nominate his son as his successor, 'Ali, true to the elective principle, replied, "I do not command it, neither do I forbid. See ye to it." He called his sons, Al-Hasan and Al-Hosein, to his bedside, gave them his final counsel, and wrote his testament. He continued to repeat the name of the Lord until he passed away.
After the funeral, Al-Hasan arraigned the assassin. Undaunted, Ibn Muljam offered to go and kill Mu'awiya, but Al-Hasan refused the offer and had him executed according to his father's final wish. 'Ali was buried in secret at Al-Kufa, his tomb hidden for fear that it would be desecrated by his enemies. He was sixty years of age.
'Ali was the last of the four "rightly guided Caliphs." He was mild and beneficent, wise in counsel, and a man of forbearance. However, his career must be characterized as a failure. His great weakness lay in compromise and procrastination. Had he acted with greater vigor and determination, he might have averted the schism that has never ceased to weaken Islam.
The Accession and Abdication of Al-Hasan
After the death of 'Ali, the city of Al-Kufa paid homage to his eldest son, Al-Hasan. He was, however, a poor-spirited man, more interested in the ever-changing charms of his harem than in the business of public life and altogether unworthy of his descent from the Prophet.
Seeing his opportunity, Mu'awiya immediately advanced from Syria to assert his title to the entire Muslim empire. Al-Hasan sent a vanguard under his brave and faithful commander, Keis, to meet the enemy, but he himself followed irresolutely, camping with the bulk of his army amidst the luxurious gardens of Al-Medain. While he was there, a false rumor spread that Keis had been defeated and slain. The news sparked a mutiny in Al-Hasan's own camp. His troops rose up, rushed into his pavilion, wounded him, and plundered his royal tents. Disheartened by this treachery and seeing no loyalty among his followers, Al-Hasan opened negotiations with Mu'awiya and agreed to abdicate.
The terms were settled: Al-Hasan was to retain the five million pieces in the treasury of Al-Kufa and the revenues of a Persian district, and the public imprecations against his father, 'Ali, were to cease. Mu'awiya granted the financial requests and agreed that no curses would be recited within Al-Hasan's hearing.
Mu'awiya Becomes Sole Caliph
After an inglorious reign of only five or six months, Al-Hasan retired to Arabia, expressing his contempt for the untrustworthy people of Al-Kufa. His loyal general, Keis, after obtaining favorable terms for his soldiers, also laid down his arms and did homage to Mu'awiya.
Thus, at last, Mu'awiya was able to make a triumphal entry into Al-Kufa. Having received the homage of the Eastern provinces, he returned to Syria as the sole and undisputed Caliph of the Muslim world.
Al-Hasan died in Medina eight years later. The Shi'a, the party of 'Ali, have always maintained that he was poisoned by his wife at the instigation of Mu'awiya, who wished to clear the way for the succession of his own son, Yezid. However, the annalist dismisses this as a foul calumny for which there is no evidence, attributing Al-Hasan's death to disease.
Mu'awiya's Reign and Key Governors
From the abdication of Al-Hasan until his own death nearly twenty years later, Mu'awiya was the undisputed Caliph of all Islam. His long reign was generally a time of prosperity and peace at home, with only intermittent outbursts from Khariji zealots and factions loyal to the house of 'Ali. Abroad, his rule was equally successful, extending the boundaries of the empire in all directions.
Two of the most influential figures from the early conquests, 'Amr and Al-Mogira, died during his reign. 'Amr, the astute but unscrupulous conqueror of Egypt, governed that province until his death. Al-Mogira, a capable and firm administrator, successfully managed the turbulent city of Al-Kufa until he too passed away.
The Rise and Rule of Ziyad
After Al-Mogira's death, Mu'awiya appointed the formidable Ziyad to govern Al-Basra, and later Al-Kufa and the entire East. Ziyad, whose parentage was uncertain, was renowned for his administrative skill and his absolute ruthlessness. He inaugurated his rule in Al-Basra with a famous and terrifying speech, threatening to punish on mere suspicion and warning that the sword would be unsheathed between him and the city's unruly populace. He established a reign of terror, enforced by a powerful police force, which effectively suppressed the chronic strife and factionalism of the Iraqi cities.
In a move that scandalized the Muslim world, Mu'awiya formally acknowledged Ziyad as his own half-brother, declaring him to be a legitimate son of his father, Abu Sufyan. Despite the opposition this caused, Ziyad's power grew. He ruled the East with an iron hand, crushing Khariji and 'Alid dissent, and in a major act of statecraft, he transplanted 50,000 Arab families from Al-Basra and Al-Kufa to Khorasan, solidifying the Muslim hold on that distant province. Ziyad died of a plague while at the height of his power.
Expansion in Africa and the East
Great progress was made in expanding the empire. In the East, Muslim armies stormed Herat and Kabul, crossed the Oxus river to take Bokhara, and beat back Turkish hordes to gain possession of Samarkand. In North Africa, the general 'Okba led a brilliant and extensive campaign, marching from Egypt to the Atlantic coast. To secure the new conquests against the native Berbers and the threat of the Byzantine navy, he founded the city of Kairawan, about one hundred miles south of Tunis, as a new and permanent capital for the province.
The Attack on Constantinople
The most significant military undertaking of Mu'awiya's reign was a major land and sea assault on the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The expedition was a protracted and costly affair. For seven years, Muslim forces laid siege to the city during the summer months, retreating to an island to winter. The attack was ultimately a failure, repulsed by the city's formidable defenses and the use of Greek fire. However, the campaign added greatly to the prestige of the Caliphate.
Mu'awiya ruled until 680 A.D. and was, on the whole, a mild and just administrator, known for his fair treatment of his Christian subjects. In one notable incident, he entertained the idea of moving the Prophet's pulpit from Medina to his capital, Damascus, but was supposedly stopped when a solar eclipse and a trembling of the pulpit were taken as divine omens against the impious project.
A New Precedent for Succession
The election of a Caliph upon each succession had repeatedly exposed Islam to serious peril. The Prophet had nominated no one; Abu Bekr was chosen by acclamation; he in turn nominated 'Omar; 'Omar appointed a council of electors; and 'Ali was chosen under compulsion. This lack of a settled rule had led to rebellion and civil war. Mu'awiya, now advanced in age, was determined to fix the succession in his own line to prevent such discord from recurring. His choice was his son, Yezid.
This move to make the Caliphate hereditary was a significant departure from the elective principle. Mu'awiya first sought the counsel of his trusted governors. Al-Mogira, governor of Al-Kufa, eagerly supported the plan and undertook to secure the allegiance of his city. He did this by bribing a deputation of citizens to travel to Damascus and publicly petition Mu'awiya to declare Yezid his heir. Ziyad, the powerful viceroy of the East, also brought Al-Basra and the eastern provinces into line. With 'Irak and Syria secured, deputations from all the provinces presented themselves at the capital and took the oath of allegiance to Yezid as the next successor.
Opposition in the Holy Cities
The main opposition to this innovation came from the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina, where the elective principle was cherished. Four men of chief authority stood out as dissenters: Al-Hosein, the son of 'Ali; 'Abd ar-Rahman, son of Abu Bekr; and the two 'Abdallahs, sons of 'Omar and Az-Zubeir.
To secure their assent, Mu'awiya set out for Mecca with a retinue of 1,000 horsemen. On entering Medina, he was met with a cold reception, as the four leading dissenters had already left for Mecca to avoid him. The remaining citizens, however, were persuaded to consent. In Mecca, Mu'awiya confronted the four. They proposed alternatives to hereditary rule: let the people of Medina choose, as they did for Abu Bekr; or, appoint a council of electors, as 'Omar had done.
Mu'awiya rejected their proposals, arguing that there was no one left of Abu Bekr's stature for the people to choose, and that an open election would lead to bloodshed. Finding his arguments had no effect, he brought his bodyguard into the Great Mosque and, at the point of the sword, compelled the city to take the oath.
The Bedouin Mother of Yezid
The example of the Holy Cities was followed throughout the empire, and the precedent for hereditary succession was set. The fiction of an elective right might be maintained in form, but the reality of dynastic rule was now established.
While Yezid's title was secured, his upbringing had been unconventional. His mother, Meisun, was of noble Bedouin birth and, amid the luxuries of the Damascus court, she pined for the freedom of the desert. She gave voice to her longing in a famous poem, which displeased Mu'awiya. He took the poem as a personal slight and dismissed her along with the young Yezid to live among her tribe, the Beni Kelb. It was there, in the desert, that Yezid acquired his lifelong taste for the chase and a roving life.
The Call from Al-Kufa
On his deathbed, Mu'awiya had warned his son and successor, Yezid, to beware of three men: the sons of 'Omar, Az-Zubeir, and 'Ali. Upon his accession, Yezid demanded their allegiance. While the sons of 'Omar and Al-'Abbas complied, Al-Hosein (son of 'Ali) and 'Abdallah ibn az-Zubeir refused and fled from Medina to the sanctuary of Mecca.
In Mecca, Al-Hosein began to receive a stream of messages from the people of Al-Kufa, who had always been disloyal to the Umeiyads. They urged him to come to their city, promising to support his claim to the Caliphate. Against the advice of his wisest friends, Al-Hosein was tempted by the call. He sent his cousin, Muslim, ahead to Al-Kufa to prepare the way. Muslim was initially successful, but Yezid quickly dispatched 'Obeidallah, the ruthless son of Ziyad, to take command of the city. 'Obeidallah swiftly crushed the nascent rebellion and publicly executed Muslim.
The March to Kerbala
Meanwhile, heedless of the danger and unaware of his cousin's fate, Al-Hosein set out from Mecca with his family and a small band of devoted followers. On the way, he received the disastrous news of Muslim's death and the collapse of the revolt in Al-Kufa. Though staggered, and despite the pleas of his followers to turn back, he felt honor-bound to press forward.
Not far from Al-Kufa, his small party was intercepted by a troop of Kufan horsemen. They were prevented from either advancing or retreating, and were forced onto the plain of Kerbala, by the western bank of the Euphrates. There, a larger army of 4,000 men under the command of 'Omar, son of Sa'd, arrived and surrounded them, cutting them off from the river and their water supply. 'Obeidallah, the governor, rejected all of Al-Hosein's offers for a peaceful resolution.
The Tragedy and Massacre
On the morning of the 10th of Moharram, 61 A.H. (October 10, 680 A.D.), Al-Hosein drew up his small band of some seventy men for their final, hopeless stand. The Kufan army, hesitant at first to attack the Prophet's own grandson, was goaded into action by their commanders. One by one, Al-Hosein's followers and kinsmen were cut down. His young nephew, Kasim, was killed, as were his son 'Ali al-Akbar and his infant son, who was shot by an arrow as Al-Hosein held him in his arms.
At last, Al-Hosein himself was attacked. Wounded and faint from thirst, he was struck by a shower of arrows and lances, and then decapitated.
The Aftermath and Legacy
The camp was plundered, but no indignity was offered to the surviving women and children. The seventy trunkless heads of the slain were carried to 'Obeidallah's palace in Al-Kufa. A thrill of horror ran through the crowd when the gory head of the Prophet's grandson was cast at the governor's feet. An aged man cried out, "Gently! By the Lord! I have seen these very lips kissed by the blessed mouth of Mohammad."
The surviving family members, along with the head of Al-Hosein, were then sent to Yezid in Damascus. The Caliph, whether sincerely or not, disowned responsibility for the death and treated the family with respect before sending them back to Medina. But the tragedy of Kerbala became an indelible stain on the Umeiyad dynasty. It provided the party of 'Ali with a powerful tale of martyrdom and oppression, which they have commemorated ever since in the passionate mourning rituals of the Moharram. The event fixed a bloody and impassable gulf between the Shi'a and the Sunni schools of Islam.
The Reaction to Kerbala
The tragedy of Kerbala produced a powerful reaction across the empire. In Al-Kufa, the city that had invited and then abandoned Al-Hosein, a movement of "Penitents" arose. They spent a night in loud lamentation over their failure to support the Prophet's grandson and vowed to avenge his death.
In Mecca, 'Abdallah ibn az-Zubeir, a man of great authority and a rival claimant to the Caliphate, began to secretly canvass for support, capitalizing on the growing anti-Umeiyad sentiment. When Yezid sent an embassy to demand his submission, Ibn az-Zubeir scornfully refused and imprisoned the messengers.
The Rebellion and Sack of Medina
Medina was also in a state of ferment. A deputation of its chief citizens was sent to Yezid's court in Damascus, in the hope that they might be won over by his generosity. They returned laden with rich presents but were horrified by what they had witnessed: a court given over to luxury, wine, music, and other "ungodly" excesses. They returned to Medina and publicly denounced the Caliph, sparking an open revolt. The citizens renounced their allegiance to Yezid, and the governor and all members of the Umeiyad clan were expelled from the city.
Enraged, Yezid dispatched a large Syrian army to crush the rebellion. The Medinese forces were defeated in the bloody "Battle of the Harra." Afterward, the Syrian army was given free rein to sack the Prophet's city for three days, during which great outrages were committed. This desecration of Medina became one of the three "heinous crimes" for which the Umeiyad dynasty was condemned by later generations.
The Siege of Mecca and the Death of Yezid
Having subdued Medina, the Syrian army marched on Mecca to deal with Ibn az-Zubeir. For two months, they besieged the Holy City, casting stones from catapults set up on the surrounding heights. During the bombardment, the Ka'ba itself caught fire and was burned to the ground.
The siege continued until, in the third month, news arrived of the sudden death of the Caliph Yezid. With his death, hostilities ceased. The Umeiyad cause was so weakened that the Syrian general offered to swear allegiance to Ibn az-Zubeir as the new Caliph if only he would accompany the army back to Syria. Ibn az-Zubeir, however, refused, preferring to remain in Mecca and rebuild the sacred shrine. The Syrian army then withdrew.
Yezid's short and calamitous reign had lasted less than four years. He is remembered for three great crimes: the murder of Al-Hosein, the sack of Medina, and the raid on the Ka'ba.
The Umeiyad Succession Crisis and the Rise of Merwan
The death of Yezid threw the Umeiyad Caliphate into a crisis. His son and successor, Mu'awiya II, was a weak and sickly youth who died within a few months, leaving no heir. With the Umeiyad house on the verge of collapse, 'Abdallah ibn az-Zubeir was recognized as Caliph throughout Arabia, Egypt, and the East.
In Damascus, however, the Umeiyad cause was saved by the elder statesman Merwan. Though from a different branch of the family, he was persuaded to claim the Caliphate. The issue was decided at the bloody Battle of Merj Rahit, a major clash between the two great Arab tribal confederations. The Yemenite tribes sided with Merwan, while the Keis tribes supported Ibn az-Zubeir. Merwan's victory secured Syria for the Umeiyads but created a blood-feud between the Yemen and Keis factions that would plague the empire for years. Merwan reigned for only a year before dying, having secured the succession for his own son, the able 'Abd al-Melik.
The Rise of Al-Mukhtar in Al-Kufa
While the Umeiyads reconsolidated their power in Syria, Al-Kufa became the center of a new 'Alid uprising. A group of "Penitents," filled with remorse for having abandoned Al-Hosein, marched on Syria seeking vengeance but were annihilated by a Syrian army.
They were succeeded by a much more formidable figure, the cunning adventurer Al-Mukhtar. He claimed to be the agent of Mohammad ibn al-Hanefiya, a surviving son of 'Ali, and by gaining the support of the powerful general Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar, he seized control of Al-Kufa. His first act was a reign of terror, hunting down and ruthlessly executing every man who had taken part in the tragedy of Kerbala.
Al-Mukhtar then sent Ibn al-Ashtar to confront the Syrian army led by 'Obeidallah, the man responsible for Al-Hosein's death. In a major battle on the river Zab, the Syrian army was routed, and 'Obeidallah was killed. His head was carried back to Al-Kufa and cast before Al-Mukhtar on the very spot where, years before, 'Obeidallah had gloated over the head of the Prophet's grandson.
The Fall of the Rival Caliphs
Despite his victory, Al-Mukhtar's power was short-lived. He was soon defeated and killed by Mus'ab, the brother of Ibn az-Zubeir, who was governing Al-Basra.
'Abd al-Melik, the Umeiyad Caliph, now free from other threats, turned his full attention to the rival Caliphate of Ibn az-Zubeir. He first marched on Al-'Irak. Mus'ab's army was riddled with treachery, and he was defeated and killed, bringing Al-Kufa and Al-Basra under Umeiyad control.
The final confrontation was with Ibn az-Zubeir himself, who was isolated in Mecca. 'Abd al-Melik dispatched his most ruthless general, Al-Hajjaj, to besiege the Holy City. The siege lasted for months, during which the Ka'ba was again damaged by catapults. One by one, Ibn az-Zubeir's followers deserted him. After a final, poignant conversation with his aged mother, Asma, he went forth and fought bravely near the Ka'ba until he was killed. Al-Hajjaj had his body impaled, and with his death, the rival Caliphate came to an end. After nine years of civil war, 'Abd al-Melik was finally recognized as the sole and undisputed Caliph of the Muslim world.
The Viceroyalty of Al-Hajjaj
With the death of his rival Ibn az-Zubeir, 'Abd al-Melik became the undisputed Caliph of the entire Muslim realm. His reign was dominated by his powerful and ruthless viceroy of the East, Al-Hajjaj. Appointed as governor of Al-'Irak, Al-Hajjaj entered the Mosque of Al-Kufa in disguise, then dramatically cast off his turban and delivered a terrifying inaugural address, promising to punish sedition with an unsparing sword and to "beat the stubborn rebel as the camel-driver beats his straying camel."
He immediately established a reign of terror. He found the armies of Al-Basra and Al-Kufa reluctant to join the long and difficult campaign against the Khariji rebels in Persia. Al-Hajjaj forced the unwilling soldiers to the front by threatening to execute any man found in the city after three days. He was as good as his word, and his severe measures effectively restored discipline. His harshness extended to all, and he famously covered Anas, the aged former servant of the Prophet, with invective, an act for which the Caliph forced him to apologize.
Khariji Rebellions and the Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath
The empire continued to be plagued by Khariji rebellions. One was led by a warrior named Shebib, whose small, fanatical band repeatedly defeated the Caliph's much larger armies and, at one point, even captured the city of Al-Kufa. He was eventually defeated and drowned while trying to escape. Meanwhile, the general Al-Muhallab, after a twenty-year struggle, finally crushed the most dangerous Khariji sect, the Azarika, in Persia.
A far more serious threat arose from within the Caliph's own army. 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn al-Ash'ath, an Arab noble commanding the magnificent "Peacock Army" on the Persian frontier, was pushed into rebellion by the incessant and arrogant demands of Al-Hajjaj. Hailed as a deliverer from the viceroy's tyranny, Ibn al-Ash'ath's revolt gained massive support, and he marched back from Persia, defeated Al-Hajjaj's forces, and seized control of Al-Basra and Al-Kufa. The Caliph, seriously alarmed, sent a large Syrian army to reinforce Al-Hajjaj. After a hundred days of skirmishes and a final, decisive battle at Dair al-Jamajim, Ibn al-Ash'ath was utterly defeated. He fled to the East and was eventually killed.
The Founding of Wasit and Major Reforms
To better control the perpetually rebellious province of Al-'Irak with his loyal Syrian troops, Al-Hajjaj founded a new military city, Wasit, located midway between Al-Kufa and Al-Basra. This became the new administrative and military center of the region.
The reign of 'Abd al-Melik was also marked by two major administrative reforms that strengthened the Arab identity of the empire. First, he introduced a purely Arabic coinage, replacing the Byzantine and Persian coins that had been in use until then. The new gold dinars and silver dirhems were inscribed with verses from the Kor'an. Second, he ordered that the language of the public accounts be changed from Greek and Persian to Arabic, a momentous step that made Arabic the official language of state across the entire empire.
Final Years of 'Abd al-Melik's Reign
While these events transpired in the East, Muslim arms were also advancing in North Africa, where the Caliph's generals finally broke the power of the Berber tribes under their prophetess, the "Kahina," and re-established Muslim authority. Near the end of his life, 'Abd al-Melik sought to set aside his brother, 'Abd al-'Aziz, as heir-apparent in favor of his own son, Al-Welid. Before the change could be made, his brother died, and Al-Welid was recognized as the successor. 'Abd al-Melik died in 705 after a reign of twenty-one years. Though his rule was stained by treachery and cruelty, he successfully reunited the Muslim empire after a long civil war and established the foundations of its administration.
Al-Welid's Reign and the Rule of 'Omar
The Caliph Al-Welid, upon his accession in 705, maintained his father's trust in the powerful viceroy of the East, Al-Hajjaj. For Arabia, however, he appointed his own cousin, the pious 'Omar, son of 'Abd al-'Aziz. 'Omar's mild and beneficent rule in the Holy Cities stood in marked contrast to Al-Hajjaj's tyranny. He beautified and enlarged the mosques of Mecca and Medina and improved the pilgrim routes. His lenient administration, however, attracted a great number of refugees from Al-'Irak, fleeing the heavy hand of Al-Hajjaj. This irritated the viceroy, who complained to Al-Welid, and the Caliph eventually recalled 'Omar. A few years later, Al-Hajjaj died, and the Caliph, who had long chafed under his overbearing influence, was seen to prostrate himself in thanksgiving to God.
Conquests in Central Asia and India
The reign of Al-Welid marked the zenith of Muslim conquest. In the East, Al-Hajjaj's brilliant general, Koteiba ibn Muslim, led a series of spectacular campaigns. He crossed the Oxus river and, over several years, conquered the great cities of Bokhara and Samarkand, beating back vast hordes of Turks and Soghdians. He established Muslim families in these cities, destroyed their idol temples, and pushed his conquests into Ferghana and to the borders of China.
At the same time, Al-Hajjaj launched an invasion of Sind (India) to punish pirates who had attacked a Muslim vessel. The campaign was led by his young cousin, Mohammad ibn al-Kasim. In a swift and successful campaign, Mohammad captured the port of Deibul, defeated the Indian armies, and stormed the great city of Al-Multan, known as the "House of Gold." The spoil was incredible, estimated at double the entire cost of the expedition. His progress was halted by the news of the Caliph's death; he was soon recalled and cruelly put to death by the new Caliph.
The Conquest of Spain
In the West, the governor of North Africa, Musa ibn Noseir, completed the subjugation of the Berber tribes and pushed his authority to the Atlantic. He was then approached by Count Julian, a Visigothic noble bitterly opposed to the usurper King Roderic of Spain. Julian invited Musa to invade the peninsula, promising an easy victory.
After a small trial raid, Musa dispatched his freedman, the Berber chief Tarik, with a force of 12,000 men. Tarik landed at the rock which still bears his name, Gibraltar, and was met by the massive army of King Roderic. In the decisive Battle of the Guadalete, the Visigothic army was utterly routed, and Roderic himself was drowned in his flight. Flushed with victory, Tarik's forces spread across the land, capturing Malaga, Granada, and the capital, Toledo. Within two years, he had subdued the greater part of Spain.
The Fall of the Conquerors
The splendid exploits of his lieutenant aroused the jealousy of Musa. He set out himself with a large army, stormed Seville and Merida, and met Tarik at Toledo. He received his general angrily, struck him with his whip, and demanded an account of the spoils. After being reconciled, the two generals continued their conquests, crossing the Pyrenees and advancing into France.
They were then abruptly summoned back to Damascus by the Caliph. Their return was a slow, triumphal procession, laden with immense treasure, trophies, and captives. They arrived just as Al-Welid was on his deathbed. The new Caliph, Suleiman, who held a grudge against them, treated the conquerors with extreme ingratitude. Musa was stripped of his command, fined so heavily that he was reduced to poverty, and died in obscurity. Tarik also disappeared from history. Their ungrateful end mirrored that of the great Khalid, another of the age's brilliant conquerors.
The Glory of Al-Welid
The era of Al-Welid was glorious both at home and abroad. There is no other reign, not even 'Omar's, in which Islam spread so widely and was so consolidated. Though called a tyrant by some historians for his support of Al-Hajjaj, he was one of the most powerful and illustrious rulers of the Caliphate. He undertook great public works, enlarging the mosques of Damascus and Medina, establishing schools and hospitals, and making provisions for the poor, blind, and lame. Under his patronage, culture and the arts began to flourish.
Suleiman's Reign and the Fall of the Conquerors
Suleiman succeeded his brother Al-Welid, and the fashion of the court changed immediately. While Al-Welid's era was known for art, Suleiman's was known for the harem and good living. Under his rule, the prowess of the empire waned.
Suleiman harbored a deep resentment against the men who had been favored by his brother, particularly those who had supported Al-Welid's plan to remove him from the succession. This led to the downfall of the great conquerors of the previous reign. Mohammad ibn al-Kasim, the brilliant young conqueror of India, was recalled from his campaign, put to an evil end, and the progress of Islam in the far East slackened.
The most dramatic fall was that of Koteiba, the conqueror of Central Asia. Fearing for his life under the new Caliph, he attempted to raise a rebellion among his troops in Khorasan. However, his army, weary of his long and bloody campaigns and alienated by his arrogance, refused to support his treason. The soldiers turned on him, and Koteiba was slain along with eleven of his brothers. His head was sent as a welcome offering to the Caliph. Thus, the great hero, whose name was more feared in the East than an entire army, came to an untimely and dishonored end.
The Rise of Yezid and the Attack on Constantinople
Suleiman's favorite was Yezid, son of Al-Muhallab. He was appointed governor of Al-'Irak and, boasting of his ability to conquer the Caspian provinces, was given command of a large army. He successfully subdued Jurjan and Tabaristan, but with exceptional cruelty. After the people of Jurjan broke their treaty and killed his garrison, Yezid swore an oath that he would not stay his sword until he had eaten bread made from corn ground by his enemies' blood. He fulfilled this savage vow by besieging the city for seven months and, after its fall, slaughtering 12,000 prisoners in a nearby valley, whose blood was used to turn a mill.
Suleiman also renewed the war against the Byzantine Empire, launching a massive land and sea assault on Constantinople. The expedition, led by his brother Maslama, was a catastrophic failure. A severe winter, followed by famine and pestilence, decimated the Muslim army. The great fleet was destroyed, and the enterprise, which had cost the Caliphate immense sums, ended in total disaster.
Suleiman died in 717 at Dabik while supervising the campaign. Handsome in appearance, it is said that just a week before his death, he admired his own reflection in a mirror, asking, "Am I not the kingly youth?" A slave-girl replied in verse that his only blemish was that, like all men, he must pass away.
The Pious Caliph
The reign of 'Omar II stands in stark contrast to those of the Caliphs before and after him. It was a rule defined by unaffected piety, justice, moderation, and simplicity. Upon his accession, he shunned the royal steeds in favor of his own modest equipage. He famously bid his wife either surrender the costly jewels given to her by her father to the state treasury or leave him, and she obeyed. His court was transformed; he dismissed the poets and sycophants and surrounded himself with pious and learned men.
His first acts were to reverse the injustices of previous reigns. He restored the garden of Fadak, long a point of contention, to the family of 'Ali and returned confiscated properties to the family of Talha. His piety, however, also led to prejudice; he enforced new restrictions on Jews and Christians and forbade their appointment to offices of trust.
A Policy of Conversion, Not Conquest
'Omar II was more intent on the spread of the faith than on territorial expansion. He actively encouraged conversion through peaceful means, sending a letter to the kings of Sind inviting them to embrace Islam with the promise of enjoying all the privileges of the Arab race. He put new converts (Mawali) on the same level as Arab fighters, exempting them from taxes and granting them state pensions.
This focus on consolidation meant a halt to military campaigns. He stayed the sword against outlying countries and recalled garrisons from heathen parts. He famously forbade using circumcision as a test for new converts, declaring, "The Lord sent Mohammad to call unto the Faith, not to circumcise."
The Fall of Yezid and the Fiscal Crisis
The Caliph's conscientious nature extended to the conduct of his governors. He summoned Yezid, son of Al-Muhallab and the favorite of the previous Caliph, to account for his vast wealth and corrupt administration in Khorasan. Unable to provide a satisfactory account, Yezid was cast into prison, from which he only escaped as 'Omar lay dying.
'Omar's policy of exempting all new converts from the poll-tax led to a fiscal crisis. As people flocked to Islam to enjoy the financial benefits, the revenues of provinces like Egypt and Khorasan plummeted. His governors complained that the treasury would soon be empty. 'Omar, however, refused to compromise his principles for money. He replied that the Prophet was sent as a missionary, not a tax-collector, and that he would be glad if the whole world converted to Islam, even if it meant he had to earn his own living by hand.
The reign of 'Omar II was a brief relief from the bloodshed and intrigue that characterized the era. After ruling for only two and a half years, he died at the age of thirty-nine. It is suspected that he was poisoned by members of his own Umeiyad family, who were angered by his reforms and his intention to set aside their right to the succession.
The Reign of Yezid II
Yezid II succeeded his cousin 'Omar II in 720, and the character of the Caliphate changed dramatically once again. The new Caliph was a frivolous ruler, devoted to his slave-girls and songstresses, and the pious reforms of his predecessor were immediately reversed. His reign was dominated by a dangerous rebellion and a return to the bitter tribal factionalism that 'Omar II had sought to quell.
The Rebellion of Yezid, son of Al-Muhallab
Just as 'Omar II lay dying, his high-profile prisoner, Yezid son of Al-Muhallab, escaped from his confinement. He fled to Al-Basra, where he rallied his own powerful Azd tribe and the broader Yemenite faction, who were resentful of the rival Keisite party. Denouncing the Caliph, he raised the standard of a holy war and seized control of the city and its treasury.
The rebellion gained so much support that he was able to send his own governors to the surrounding provinces. To crush the uprising, the Caliph dispatched a large Syrian army under his brother, the veteran general Maslama. Yezid marched out from Al-Basra to meet the imperial forces. Rejecting the advice of his brothers to wage a guerilla war from the safety of Persia, he engaged the Syrians in a major battle. After a fierce fight, Yezid was defeated and killed.
The rebel army fled, and Yezid's family was pursued relentlessly. His brothers were caught and killed, and the women and children of the house of Al-Muhallab were captured. The 300 prisoners taken in Al-Kufa were, by the Caliph's order, executed in cold blood. Thus, the powerful and once-favored house of Al-Muhallab was exterminated.
Provincial Affairs and the Rise of Tradition
Following the rebellion, the Caliph appointed a staunch Keisite, 'Omar ibn Hubeira, as governor of Al-'Irak. He immediately began to persecute the Yemenite faction, intensifying the tribal feud. Elsewhere, the empire's military fortunes were mixed. In Central Asia, the Muslim army suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the Turks in an engagement that became known as the "Day of Thirst." In the West, however, the Muslim governor of Spain advanced into France, captured Narbonne, and laid siege to Toulouse, though he was eventually repulsed.
Throughout this period, the secret canvass for the Hashimite (future 'Abbasid) cause continued to grow in the East. The era also saw a significant development in Islamic scholarship. As the last of the Prophet's "Companions" died out, a class of "Successors" and "Followers" arose, who dedicated themselves to collecting the traditions, or hadith, which would become a cornerstone of Islamic law.
The reign of Yezid II was short and inglorious. He was so attached to his favorite slave-girl, Habbaba, that when she died after choking on a grape-stone he threw playfully into her mouth, he was inconsolable. He died of grief a few days later, having reigned for just over four years.
The Reign of Hisham
Hisham, another son of 'Abd al-Melik, ascended to the Caliphate in 724. He was an able and, in many ways, just ruler, but his avarice made him unpopular. He was a keen financier who left the imperial treasury full, and he invested in public works, including canals, castles, and gardens. However, his long reign of nearly twenty years was marked by serious rebellions, difficult wars on every frontier, and the ominous growth of a secret movement that would eventually overthrow his dynasty.
The Rise of the 'Abbasids and the Revolt of Zeid
Throughout the Umeiyad era, the party of 'Ali (Shi'a) had been a constant source of disaffection. During Hisham's reign, however, a more dangerous rival to the Umeiyads emerged: the 'Abbasids, descendants of the Prophet's uncle, Al-'Abbas. Through a network of secret emissaries, they began to canvass for support, particularly in the eastern province of Khorasan, gradually co-opting the pro-'Alid sentiment for their own cause.
This sentiment was fueled by events in Al-'Irak. The 'Alid leader Zeid, a grandson of Al-Hosein, was driven into rebellion in Al-Kufa by the persecution of the ruthless governor, Yusuf ibn 'Omar. The fickle Kufans pledged their support but, as they had done with his grandfather, deserted him in the hour of battle. Zeid was defeated and killed, and in a final act of Umeiyad brutality, his body was crucified and left exposed for years. Though the revolt was a failure, the martyrdom of another of the Prophet's descendants served as a powerful rallying cry for the growing anti-Umeiyad movement.
Wars on the Frontiers
Hisham's reign was a period of unceasing warfare on the empire's borders. In Central Asia, his governors fought long and difficult campaigns against the powerful Turkish hordes, suffering several serious defeats before the able governor Nasr ibn Seiyar finally restored Muslim authority. In India, the province of Sind was reconquered after having fallen into disorder. In Armenia, the Muslim armies fought bloody wars against the Khazar hordes from the Caucasus.
The most serious military crises occurred in the West. In North Africa, a massive Berber revolt, inspired by Khariji doctrines, swept across the land, inflicting a series of disastrous defeats on the Arab armies. In one engagement, known as the "Battle of the Nobles," the flower of the Arab aristocracy in the province was annihilated. It took a massive army dispatched from Syria to finally crush the rebellion.
The Invasion of France and the Battle of Tours
In Spain, Muslim armies crossed the Pyrenees and pushed deep into France, capturing Carcassonne and Nimes. A great raid led by the governor 'Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafeki advanced as far as the Loire river, threatening the heart of Western Christendom. Between Tours and Poitiers, this army was met by the Frankish forces under the command of Charles Martel. In a decisive, week-long battle in 732, the Muslim army was utterly defeated, and its commander, 'Abd ar-Rahman, was slain. The Battle of Tours marked a major turning point; it shattered the myth of Arab invincibility and permanently halted the Muslim advance into Western Europe.
Hisham died in 743 after a long reign that, despite its many troubles, had held the fragmenting empire together through his firm and prudent, if miserly, administration.
The Brief Reign of Ibrahim
After the death of Yezid III, his brother Ibrahim assumed power in Damascus, but his rule was contested and brief, lasting only three or four months. He was recognized as Caliph only in Southern Syria, as the empire rapidly descended into chaos.
The Rise of Merwan II
The powerful governor of Armenia and the Caucasus, Merwan, a grandson of the first Caliph Merwan, saw an opportunity in the power vacuum. He marched south with a strong army and rallied the support of the Keisite tribes of Northern Syria. He was met by an army loyal to Ibrahim, composed chiefly of the rival Yemenite tribes, and defeated them in a major battle near Damascus.
Ibrahim fled, and Merwan entered the capital, where he was saluted as Caliph. Merwan II, the last of the Umeiyads to rule, was an experienced and energetic general, but he inherited a crumbling empire. He moved his court from Damascus to the desert city of Harran and pursued a policy of conciliation, but his reign would be a constant struggle against rebellion on all fronts. To prevent future uprisings in Syria, he had the walls of Hims, Damascus, Jerusalem, and other key cities dismantled.
Widespread Rebellion
Merwan's authority was immediately challenged. In Al-'Irak, a massive Khariji rebellion broke out under a leader named Ad-Dahhak. He gained widespread support, defeated the Caliph's governors, and seized control of Al-Kufa, Wasit, and most of the province. At the same time, an 'Alid pretender, Ibn Mu'awiya, raised a successful revolt in Persia, establishing his court at Istakhr and gaining control over Isfahan and other major cities.
As Merwan prepared to march against the Khawarij in Al-'Irak, he was forced to turn back to deal with a new rebellion in Syria itself, led by his old rival Suleiman. After defeating Suleiman, Merwan was bogged down for five months in a difficult siege of the rebellious city of Hims.
The Final Campaigns of Merwan II
Having finally secured Syria, Merwan was at last free to confront the Khawarij. He met their massive army near Nasibin and, after a long and bloody battle, defeated them and killed their leader, Ad-Dahhak. He then spent the next year and a half pacifying the provinces of Al-'Irak and Persia, which had been thrown into disorder by the various rebellions.
While Merwan was fighting for survival in the East, the far western province of Spain had descended into total anarchy, with the Arab tribes engaging in their old feud between Yemen and Modar. The province was rapidly slipping from the Caliphate's grasp. Critically, these constant rebellions left Merwan unable to send aid to his loyal viceroy, Nasr, in the great eastern province of Khorasan, where the storm of the 'Abbasid revolution was about to break in full force.
The overthrow of the Umeiyad Dynasty was brought about by a rising in Khorasan, a province whose internal politics were a direct reflection of the garrison city from which it was colonized, Al-Basra. Unlike Al-Kufa, which was divided by political and religious parties, Al-Basra was dominated by fierce tribal jealousies that the Arab colonists carried with them to their new home.
The Tribal Factions
The Arab society in Al-Basra, and by extension Khorasan, was split into two great rival confederations. The first was the northern Arab group, known as Modar, which was dominated by the powerful tribe of Temim. The second was the southern Arab group, or Yemenite faction, whose leading tribe was the Azd, supported by the Rabi'a tribe.
For a long period, the Yemenite Azd tribe, led by the famous general Al-Muhallab and his sons, held power in Khorasan. This created a period of relative balance, but it was fiercely resented by the Temim. When the house of Al-Muhallab fell from grace under Caliph Yezid II, the Modar faction returned to power, and the Azdi chiefs were persecuted, keeping the feud simmering.
The Final Breakdown
During the reign of Hisham, the governorship of Khorasan shifted back and forth between leaders of the rival factions, further inflaming tensions. The situation was complicated by the rebellion of Al-Harith ibn Sureij, a chief who championed the rights of Persian converts and drew support from discontented members of both the Azd and Temim tribes.
The final Umeiyad governor, Nasr ibn Seiyar, was a Modari. He faced a province in chaos, with a full-blown rebellion led by the Yemenite chief Al-Kirmani. The two Arab factions were so consumed with fighting each other that they failed to recognize a far greater threat.
While Nasr (representing the Modar) and Al-Kirmani (representing the Yemen) were engaged in a bitter civil war around the capital city of Merv, the black banners of the 'Abbasid revolution, led by their agent Abu Muslim, appeared on the scene. For a brief moment, the Arabs, facing a common enemy, were shocked into unity. But Abu Muslim, a master of intrigue, cleverly maneuvered to break their fragile alliance, bringing the Yemenite Azd tribe over to his side.
With the Arabs hopelessly divided, Abu Muslim entered Merv in triumph in December 747. The aged governor Nasr was forced to flee, and the Umeiyad cause was lost in Khorasan, a direct result of the Arabs' own self-destructive tribal feuds.
The 'Abbasid Uprising in the East
The final downfall of the Umeiyad dynasty was swift and decisive. In Khorasan, the 'Abbasid agent Abu Muslim, having successfully exploited the tribal feuds that paralyzed the Arab leadership, received the command from his master, the 'Abbasid Imam Ibrahim, to raise the black banner of their house. In June 747, the uprising was launched. Contingents of supporters poured in from every quarter, and the Umeiyad governor, Nasr, was forced to abandon the capital, Merv.
The 'Abbasid army, under the command of the brilliant general Kahtaba, pursued Nasr relentlessly. The aged viceroy was defeated in a series of battles and died while fleeing westward. Kahtaba continued his victorious march, defeating Umeiyad forces at Nihavend and Holwan, and advanced into Al-'Irak.
Meanwhile, the Umeiyad Caliph, Merwan II, finally grew alarmed. He intercepted a letter from the Imam Ibrahim and ordered his arrest. Ibrahim was seized at his home and died in a prison at Harran, but not before he had nominated his brother, Abu'l-'Abbas, as his successor.
The Fall of Al-Kufa and the Rise of As-Saffah
In Al-'Irak, Kahtaba confronted the main Umeiyad army. In a decisive battle near the Euphrates, he defeated the enemy, though he himself was killed in the fighting. His son took command and marched immediately on Al-Kufa, which he captured with little opposition.
With the city secured, the 'Abbasid family, including the new Imam Abu'l-'Abbas, came out of hiding. Three months after the city's capture, Abu'l-'Abbas was brought forth and, in the Great Mosque of Al-Kufa, was publicly proclaimed the first 'Abbasid Caliph. In his inaugural address, he denounced the Umeiyads, praised the Kufans for their loyalty, and declared it his mission to root out all opposition, taking for himself the title As-Saffah, "the Blood-shedder."
The Battle of the Zab and the Death of Merwan
Merwan II, the last Umeiyad Caliph, finally marched from his desert capital at Harran with a massive army of 120,000 men to crush the rebellion. The two armies met on the banks of the Great Zab river. Merwan's army, though larger, was demoralized and riddled with tribal disloyalty. In the ensuing battle, the 'Abbasid forces won a crushing victory. Merwan's army was completely routed, and many who were not killed by the sword were drowned trying to flee across the river.
Merwan himself fled the battlefield. He was pursued relentlessly, finding no refuge in Harran, Damascus, or Palestine. He finally reached Egypt, where he was tracked down to a small church in Busir. There, in August 750, he was surprised, overpowered, and killed. His head was sent to As-Saffah in Al-Kufa. Upon seeing it, the new Caliph bowed low in adoration and praised the Lord who had given him victory and revenge over an ungodly race. The Umeiyad dynasty had come to an end.
The rise of the 'Abbasid dynasty marked a fresh departure in the history of Islam, bringing fundamental changes to the nature of the Caliphate and the role of the Arab people.
A New and Divided Caliphate
Unlike the Umeiyad Caliphate, which was co-ordinate with the limits of Islam, the authority of the 'Abbasids was never universal. Spain never recognized the new dynasty, and Africa remained largely independent. While the 'Abbasids were viewed as the only legitimate successors to the Prophet, their direct temporal power gradually shrank over the centuries until they became mere spiritual figureheads under the authority of foreign sultans, eventually fading into a "shadowy pageantry" under the Mamluk kings of Egypt.
The Decline of Arab Influence
A second major feature of the 'Abbasid era was the changing role of the Arab race. The hardy, martial Arabs, whose fire and vigor had fueled the initial conquests, had by now been softened by the wealth and luxury of the empire. They had either settled into a life of ease or were consumed by their own petulant tribal rivalries.
The 'Abbasids, having risen to power with the help of Persian and Khorasanian converts, were deeply suspicious of the Arab tribes. They shifted their power base, and the chief commands, both civil and military, fell rapidly into the hands of Turkish and Persian adventurers. The old Arab aristocracy was replaced by a new class of government officials, headed by the Persian-style Wazir (Vizier). The imperial armies were now recruited from the tribes of Central Asia, and the Arabs, no longer the pillar of the Caliphate, retired to their desert wilds.
Persian Influence and Religious Schism
The influence of Persia profoundly affected the new dynasty. On one hand, it introduced an era of science, philosophy, and art that became the glory of the reigns of Al-Ma'mun and his successors. On the other, it brought the customs of a despotic court.
Religiously, the 'Abbasids, despite their shared Hashimite ancestry with the house of 'Ali, became champions of Orthodox (Sunni) Islam. They did this to broaden their own popular support and to counter the claims of the 'Alids, who were their most dangerous rivals. This political necessity permanently solidified the great schism between the Sunni and Shi'a sects. Persia became the great supporter of the Shi'a cause, creating a religious and political division with the Sunni Caliphate that has endured to the present day.
The author concludes this review by reflecting on the nature of Islamic society, arguing that the fusion of spiritual and secular authority prevents the growth of free institutions, while polygamy and the seclusion of women act as a "curse and blight" that leads to social stagnation.
The First 'Abbasid Caliph
After the Umeiyad defeat, the Hashimite forces occupied Al-Kufa. Their chief agent, Abu Salama, governed for several weeks as "Wazir of the house of Mohammad," keeping the 'Abbasid family in strict privacy. However, the Khorasanian military leaders grew impatient and, three months after the city's capture, brought forth Abu'l-'Abbas. They proceeded to the Great Mosque where he was publicly proclaimed the first 'Abbasid Caliph.
In his inaugural address, he magnified the claims of the Prophet's family, denounced the Umeiyads, and promised rewards to the people of Al-Kufa. He ended by declaring it his mission to root out all opposition, stating, "I am the Great Revenger, and my name As-Saffah, the Blood-shedder."
The Extermination of the Umeiyads
The new Caliph immediately set about earning his sanguinary title. His first priority was to sweep the entire Umeiyad race from the face of the earth. His uncles and other relatives were sent with commands to hunt them down in every province. The cruelest massacre occurred in Palestine, where an uncle of the Caliph invited ninety members of the Umeiyad family to a feast under the promise of an amnesty. As they ate, assassins rushed in and clubbed the unsuspecting guests to death. A carpet was then drawn over the gruesome scene, and the 'Abbasid host continued their feast to the sound of their victims' groans.
The only notable Umeiyad to escape the wholesale butchery was 'Abd ar-Rahman, who, after many perilous adventures, reached Spain and founded an independent and brilliant Umeiyad dynasty there. The tombs of the Umeiyad Caliphs in Damascus were also desecrated, and their ashes were scattered to the winds.
Consolidation of Power
The last major Umeiyad force, under the general Ibn Hubeira, held out for eleven months in the fortress-city of Wasit. Finally, after receiving news of Merwan's death, he capitulated under a solemn amnesty granted by the Caliph's brother, Abu Ja'far. As-Saffah ratified the treaty with the most sacred oaths, but a few weeks later, he gave the order for the Umeiyad general and all his leading followers to be treacherously put to death.
The Caliph's brutality was mirrored by his relatives. In Mosul, the people refused to obey their new governor. The Caliph's brother Yahya was sent to restore order; he gathered the townsmen in the Mosque court under a promise of safety and then had them massacred to a man. Uprisings in Syria, Persia, and Sind were also put down with great severity. The Caliph even turned on the early supporters of his own cause, arranging for the assassination of his "Wazir," Abu Salama, who was suspected of 'Alid sympathies.
Death of As-Saffah
The Caliph's reign was short. As his power grew, so did his anxiety about the immense influence of his own viceroy in the East, Abu Muslim. A rivalry began to brew between the two most powerful men in the new dynasty. As-Saffah died of smallpox in his palace at Al-Anbar after a reign of less than five years. His name, "the Blood-shedder," was well-chosen, as he was distinguished for a cruelty and treachery that was extreme even for a dynasty that had little respect for human life.
Al-Mansur, whose name means "the Victorious," succeeded his brother As-Saffah in 754. His long reign of twenty-two years was dedicated to ruthlessly consolidating the power of the 'Abbasid dynasty, a goal he achieved through treachery, cruelty, and brilliant administration.
The Fall of Abu Muslim
Al-Mansur’s first challenge was a rebellion by his own uncle, 'Abdallah, who claimed the Caliphate in Syria. To crush this, the Caliph turned to Abu Muslim, the powerful kingmaker of Khorasan who had brought the 'Abbasids to power. Abu Muslim defeated the rebel army, but his immense power and prestige were a source of deep anxiety for the Caliph.
Fearing his powerful subject, Al-Mansur resolved to destroy him. He summoned Abu Muslim to his court, luring him with gracious promises. Once Abu Muslim was in his presence, the Caliph berated him with a list of charges and then, signaling to hidden assassins, had him cut to pieces. The body was unceremoniously rolled up in a carpet and cast into the Tigris river. Thus perished the man who had been the chief architect of the 'Abbasid victory. The murder sparked several rebellions in Persia, but they were eventually suppressed.
The 'Alid Rebellion
The most serious threat to Al-Mansur's reign came from the descendants of 'Ali. The Caliph's persecution of the 'Alid family drove two brothers, Mohammad (known as "the Pure Soul") and Ibrahim, into open rebellion. Mohammad raised his standard in Medina, while Ibrahim gathered a massive following in Al-Basra.
The revolt in Al-'Irak posed a grave danger, and Al-Mansur was for a time nearly trapped in Al-Kufa as the province rose in support of Ibrahim. However, the Caliph's armies, led by his nephew 'Isa, eventually defeated and killed both brothers in separate battles. Al-Mansur's revenge on the supporters of the revolt was severe; in Medina, he had the date-groves, the pride of the city, cut down.
The Founding of Bagdad
Convinced by these rebellions of the need for a new, secure capital away from the fickle cities of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra, Al-Mansur searched for a suitable location. He chose a site on the western bank of the Tigris, about fifteen miles upriver from the old Persian capital of Al-Medain. Here, in 762, he laid the foundations for Bagdad, the "City of Peace."
The city was built in a circular design, with the Caliph's palace and the Great Mosque at its center. The massive project took four years and employed 100,000 craftsmen and laborers. Bagdad was admirably situated at the heart of the empire, and it quickly grew into a magnificent and world-renowned metropolis.
Consolidation, Spain, and Death
Al-Mansur continued to eliminate all potential rivals through intrigue and violence. He forced his cousin 'Isa, the designated heir, to relinquish his claim to the succession in favor of his own son, Al-Mehdi. During his reign, the last remnant of Umeiyad power re-established itself in Spain, where the fugitive prince 'Abd ar-Rahman founded an independent and brilliant dynasty that would never recognize 'Abbasid authority.
Al-Mansur died in 775 while on pilgrimage to Mecca and was buried in the Holy City. He was a great but terrible ruler. Though his reign was stained by cruelty, treachery, and an extreme avarice, his strength and foresight firmly established the 'Abbasid dynasty, broke the power of the unruly Arab tribes, and ushered in an era of intellectual and cultural flourishing.
The ten-year reign of Al-Mehdi, who succeeded his father Al-Mansur, served as a transition between the rough, vigorous rule of the early 'Abbasids and the more refined era that followed.
A Reign of Generosity and Public Works
By nature mild and generous, Al-Mehdi inaugurated his reign by opening the prison doors to all but the most dangerous felons. Using the vast treasure accumulated by his father, he engaged in lavish public works. He enlarged and beautified the mosques of the Holy Cities and other capitals. The pilgrim routes to Mecca were improved with new caravanserais, fountains, and security.
His own pilgrimages were displays of fabulous generosity. On one occasion, he spent an immense sum clothing the poor and distributing largesses to the citizens of Mecca. He also reformed the practice of covering the Ka'ba, removing the multiple layers of old brocade that had endangered the building and replacing them with a single new covering each year.
Cruelty and Persecution
There was, however, a darker side to Al-Mehdi's administration, marked by outbursts of hideous cruelty. An early rebellion in Khorasan was suppressed with extreme brutality; its captured leader was put to death, and his comrades were beheaded and their bodies dismembered.
Al-Mehdi also established a state department, a kind of inquisition, to hunt down and exterminate Manichaean heretics, or Zanadika. A great multitude of these alleged heretics were apprehended and put to death. In the East, he faced a more serious threat from a fanatic known as Al-Mokanna, "the Veiled Prophet" of Khorasan, who claimed divinity and was worshipped by vast numbers. For four years, his followers defeated the Caliph's armies before he was finally besieged in a fort, where he killed himself and his followers by casting them into flames.
Foreign Campaigns and Family Life
Al-Mehdi renewed the war against the Byzantine Empire. His son, the future Caliph Harun, led a massive expedition that ravaged Asia Minor and advanced to the very shores of the Bosphorus. The Empress Irene was forced to sue for an ignominious peace, agreeing to pay a heavy biannual tribute.
In his personal life, Al-Mehdi was devoted to his favorite wife, Kheizuran, a former slave-girl and the mother of his sons Musa and Harun. He was also deeply attached to his young daughter, Yakuta, whom he would have ride by his side dressed in male attire. He successfully coerced his cousin 'Isa, the previous heir-apparent, to relinquish his claim to the throne in favor of his own two sons. He died in 785 at the age of forty-three.
The Brief Reign of Al-Hadi
Al-Hadi succeeded his father Al-Mehdi but reigned for little more than a year. His rule was marked by a power struggle with his own mother, the influential Kheizuran, whom he forbade from interfering in the affairs of state. He also continued his father's persecution of Manichaean heretics.
The most significant event of his short reign was a new 'Alid rebellion in Medina, led by a descendant of Al-Hasan. The uprising was crushed in the "Battle of Fakh" near Mecca, but one of the 'Alid leaders, Idris, escaped to the West, where he successfully founded the Idrisid dynasty, which was long a threat to the Caliphate. Al-Hadi's death is shrouded in mystery; he died suddenly, and it is suspected that his mother, angered by his attempts to supplant her favorite son Harun in the succession, had him poisoned or smothered by her slave-girls.
The Golden Age of Harun ar-Rashid
Upon his brother's death, Harun ar-Rashid, now twenty-five years of age, ascended to the Caliphate. His reign is the most celebrated in the 'Abbasid dynasty. He is noted for his careful observance of Islamic ritual, performing the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times and showing lavish generosity to the Holy Cities. His court at Bagdad was magnificent, a center for poets, musicians, and men of learning.
For the first seventeen years, the empire was virtually run by the powerful Barmekid family. Yahya the Barmeki was Harun's Wazir, and his two sons, Al-Fadl and Ja'far, exercised unbounded power. Al-Fadl was a renowned statesman, while Ja'far was the Caliph's beloved favorite and boon companion.
Campaigns and Internal Strife
Harun's reign was marked by military success against the Byzantine Empire. When the Emperor Nicephorus broke a truce and sent an insulting letter demanding the return of tribute, Harun famously replied, "I have read thy letter. The answer is for thine eye to see, not for thine ear to hear." He was as good as his word, immediately launching a devastating campaign into Asia Minor that humbled the Emperor and forced him into an ignominious peace.
The empire, however, was not without its troubles. A long and bitter feud between the northern and southern Arab tribes kept Syria in turmoil for years, and a major Khariji rebellion ravaged Mesopotamia.
The Fall of the Barmekids and Harun's Succession Plan
In 803, after seventeen years of wielding absolute power, the Barmekid family fell from grace with shocking suddenness. In a single night, Harun had his favorite, Ja'far, executed. He then imprisoned the aged Wazir Yahya and his other son, Al-Fadl, who both died in confinement shortly after. The reason for this brutal reversal is shrouded in mystery, but the most likely cause was the discovery that Ja'far had secretly married Harun's beloved sister, 'Abbasa, and that she had borne him a child.
Near the end of his reign, Harun made a fateful decision to provide for the succession. He had the empire divided between his two sons. Al-Amin, his son by the noble princess Zubeida, was named the heir-apparent and given rule of the western provinces. Al-Ma'mun, his older son by a Persian slave-girl, was named second in line and made the nearly independent ruler of the East, from Hamadan to the Oxus. In a solemn ceremony at Mecca, the two brothers swore sacred oaths to abide by this arrangement.
Final Days and Legacy
A serious rebellion in the East prompted Harun, though already ill, to march in person to restore order. He traveled from his residence at Ar-Rakka to Bagdad and then on towards Khorasan. His illness worsened on the journey, and he died at Tus in 809, having reigned for twenty-three years.
Harun's reign ushered in the golden age of the Caliphate. His court was the center to which flocked the wise and the learned from all parts of the world. While the romantic tales of the Thousand and One Nights have cast an adventurous glow around his name, his Caliphate was a real era of splendor, even when stripped of its romance.
Harun ar-Rashid's unwise division of the kingdom left a fatal legacy that quickly bore bitter fruit, plunging the empire into a devastating civil war between his two sons.
The Brothers at Odds
Al-Amin, the new Caliph in Bagdad, immediately violated his father's solemn will. He ordered the army at Tus, which had been assigned to his brother Al-Ma'mun, to return at once to the capital. Al-Ma'mun, left in Merv with only a small force, was in a precarious position. However, his Persian lineage on his mother's side earned him the loyalty of the people of the East, and he was served by a brilliant Wazir, Al-Fadl.
Al-Amin, a weak voluptuary guided by his own ambitious Wazir, soon took a more drastic step. He declared that his own infant son's name should take precedence over Al-Ma'mun's in the public prayers, effectively nullifying the succession plan. He then had the sacred documents detailing the succession, which had been hung in the Ka'ba, brought to Bagdad and publicly torn to pieces. In response, Al-Ma'mun assumed the title of Caliph in the East, and the breach between the two brothers became irreparable.
The March on Bagdad
Al-Amin dispatched a massive army of 50,000 men to crush his brother. Al-Ma'mun's much smaller force, led by the able general Tahir, met them at Ar-Reiy. In a decisive battle, Tahir was completely victorious, and Al-Amin's general was killed.
Following this victory, Tahir's army, reinforced by another column under the veteran general Harthama, advanced steadily westward. Province after province, including the Holy Cities of Arabia, renounced their allegiance to the profligate Al-Amin and swore loyalty to Al-Ma'mun.
The Siege and Destruction of Bagdad
While his empire crumbled, Al-Amin remained in Bagdad, immersed in a life of pleasure, surrounded by his maidens and eunuchs. As Tahir and Harthama's armies closed in, the capital fell into chaos. An uprising in favor of Al-Ma'mun briefly deposed Al-Amin, and though he was reinstated, his authority was gone.
The 'Abbasid armies then began a siege of Bagdad that would last for over a year. The beautiful city, into which the riches of the world had been pouring for fifty years, became a scene of horror. Catapults battered the walls, streams of Greek fire were launched, and savage hand-to-hand fighting took place in every street. The inhabitants suffered terribly from famine, and the city was reduced to a heap of ruins.
The Death of Al-Amin
One by one, Al-Amin's generals deserted him. In the end, the wretched Caliph, abandoned by all and trapped in his citadel, sought to surrender to the general Harthama, whom he trusted more than Tahir. He attempted to escape by boat across the Tigris to Harthama's camp, but the boat was attacked and sunk by Tahir's men. Al-Amin swam to the shore, where he was captured. That night, he was slain by a party of Persian soldiers. His head was displayed on the battlements and then, along with the emblems of royalty, sent to Al-Ma'mun in Merv.
Al-Ma'mun's reign was not only illustrious for its patronage of learning but also fraught with political turmoil, largely of his own making.
The Caliph's 'Alid Policies and the Revolt of Bagdad
After the civil war, Al-Ma'mun made the fatal mistake of remaining in the eastern capital of Merv. There, he fell under the influence of his powerful Persian Wazir, Al-Fadl, and embraced the doctrines of the 'Alid party. His viceroy in Bagdad was unable to control the western provinces, and a dangerous 'Alid rebellion led by Abu's-Saraya erupted, seizing control of Al-Kufa and Al-Basra. The veteran general Harthama had to be called out of retirement to crush the uprising.
After his victory, Harthama traveled to Merv to warn the Caliph of the disastrous state of the empire and the malign influence of his Wazir. However, the Wazir turned the Caliph against him, and the aged general was disgraced and died in prison.
In an act of "inconceivable infatuation," Al-Ma'mun then took his pro-'Alid policy to its extreme. He named 'Ali ar-Rida, the eighth Imam of the Shi'a, as his heir-apparent. He commanded that the official color of the empire be changed from 'Abbasid black to 'Alid green. This act caused a furious rebellion in Bagdad. The 'Abbasid family and the people of the city, feeling betrayed, deposed Al-Ma'mun and proclaimed his uncle, Ibrahim, as a rival Caliph.
The Return to Bagdad
Al-Ma'mun's eyes were finally opened to the reality of the situation by 'Ali ar-Rida himself, who warned him that his Wazir was hiding the truth and that the empire was slipping from his grasp. Al-Ma'mun at last resolved to return to Bagdad. The journey west was marked by two sudden and suspicious deaths. First, his powerful Wazir, Al-Fadl, was assassinated in his bath. Shortly after, the heir-apparent, 'Ali ar-Rida, also died suddenly after eating a "surfeit of grapes." Though the Caliph mourned publicly, it was widely believed that he had orchestrated both deaths to remove the two main obstacles to his regaining control of the empire.
As Al-Ma'mun approached Bagdad, the rival Caliph Ibrahim fled, and the city returned to its allegiance. The Caliph changed the imperial color back to 'Abbasid black and restored order. To reward his great general, Tahir, he made him the hereditary governor of the East. This act established the powerful Tahirid dynasty, which would rule Khorasan with virtual independence for fifty years.
A Brilliant Reign Stained by Intolerance
The latter part of Al-Ma'mun's reign was a glorious one, ushering in the "palmy days" of literature, science, and philosophy. His court was filled with learned men of all faiths, and he sponsored the translation of Greek works of science and philosophy into Arabic.
However, his love for intellectual speculation also led him down a path of intolerance. He adopted the "heterodox" doctrines of the Mo'tazili school, including the belief that the Kor'an was not eternal but "created." In his later years, he sought to impose these views on his subjects, establishing an inquisition, known as the Mihna, to persecute orthodox scholars who refused to conform. The famous theologian Ahmed ibn Hanbal was one of its most prominent victims.
Al-Ma'mun spent his last years leading several successful campaigns against the Byzantine Empire. He died of a fever in 833 near Tarsus while on campaign. His reign, taken as a whole, is one of the most brilliant in the history of Islam, though its luster is dimmed by his cruel treatment of some who had served him and by the religious intolerance of his later years.
The reigns of Al-Mo'tasim and his son, Al-Wathik, were defined by the rising power of a new Turkish military elite, the final suppression of a long-running rebellion, a major war against the Byzantine Empire, and a severe religious inquisition at home.
The Turkish Guards and the Founding of Samarra
Al-Mo'tasim, who succeeded his brother Al-Ma'mun, followed and expanded upon his predecessor's policy of relying on Turkish soldiers for his personal guard. He brought thousands of these slave-soldiers from Central Asia to his capital. Their wild and lawless behavior in the streets of Bagdad, however, caused riots among the populace.
To solve this problem, and to escape the city's turbulent factions, Al-Mo'tasim made the fateful decision to move his capital. He founded a new royal city, Samarra, about sixty miles up the Tigris. He built magnificent palaces there for himself and barracks for his Turkish troops. This move, however, had long-term consequences: it isolated the Caliph from the broader Arab and Persian population and made him a virtual prisoner of his own foreign guard, whose insolence and power grew unchecked.
The End of Babek's Rebellion
For twenty years, a heretic named Babek had led a formidable rebellion in Azerbaijan, defeating numerous armies and striking terror into the region. Al-Mo'tasim sent his most able Turkish general, Afshin, to finally crush the movement. After a difficult two-year campaign, Afshin stormed Babek's mountain stronghold and took him prisoner. Babek was brought to Samarra, paraded through the city on an elephant, and then brutally executed in the Caliph's presence. His body was impaled, and his head was sent around the cities of Khorasan.
The Sack of Amorion
Taking advantage of the Caliph's preoccupation with Babek, the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus attacked and ravaged Muslim territory in Asia Minor. In revenge, Al-Mo'tasim assembled a massive army with the express purpose of destroying Amorion, the Emperor's birthplace. After defeating Theophilus in a pitched battle, the Caliph laid siege to the city. After fifty-five days, Amorion was taken by treachery. It was then subjected to the last severities of war: the city was sacked and burned to the ground, and its population was massacred or sold into slavery.
The Reign of Al-Wathik and the Inquisition
Al-Mo'tasim was succeeded by his son, Al-Wathik, a "worthless Caliph" whose reign was largely a continuation of his father's. He is chiefly remembered for his severe enforcement of the religious inquisition (Mihna), which sought to impose the Mo'tazili doctrine that the Kor'an was "created."
The most famous victim of this persecution was Ahmed ibn Nasr, a respected orthodox scholar in Bagdad. He was arrested for plotting an uprising, and when brought before the Caliph, he staunchly refused to accept the official doctrine. Enraged, Al-Wathik personally beheaded him. Ahmed's head was displayed in Bagdad and his body impaled, and he became a celebrated martyr for the orthodox party. After a short and unremarkable reign, Al-Wathik died in 847.
A Cruel and Vindictive Ruler
Al-Mutawakkil, the brother of the previous Caliph, ascended to the throne in 847. His reign was immediately marked by a cruel and vindictive nature. His first act was to torture and kill the Wazir of the previous reign, who had treated him with contempt. He then turned on the powerful Turkish general Itakh, a favorite of his predecessor. After a drunken brawl, the Caliph plotted the general's downfall. Itakh was treacherously lured to Bagdad, seized, and cast into a prison, where he was intentionally left to starve to death.
The Return to Orthodoxy
The most significant act of Al-Mutawakkil's reign was a complete reversal of the religious policies of his predecessors. He renounced the Mo'tazili doctrines, such as the belief that the Kor'an was "created," and championed the cause of orthodox Sunni Islam. He put an end to the hated inquisition (Mihna), released its prisoners, and showered favor on the orthodox party.
This return to orthodoxy, however, was accompanied by severe intolerance. He began to persecute the 'Alid (Shi'a) party, and in a move that caused widespread scandal, he had the sacred shrine of Al-Hosein at Kerbala destroyed, the ground plowed over, and pilgrimages to the site forbidden. He also renewed and intensified the humiliating restrictions on Jews and Christians. They were forced to wear colored patches on their garments, their new churches were demolished, and they were barred from all offices of state.
Provincial Affairs and the Caliph's Assassination
While the empire was disturbed by the rise of the Saffarid dynasty in the East and by ongoing, indecisive wars with the Byzantines, the real danger to the Caliph was in his own court. In his later years, Al-Mutawakkil showed a growing favoritism for his second son, Al-Mo'tazz, over his eldest son and heir-apparent, Al-Muntasir. He publicly humiliated Al-Muntasir, at one point forcing him to drink to excess and then mocking him.
Pushed to the brink, Al-Muntasir conspired with the Turkish captains of the guard, who also feared for their own lives under the tyrannical Caliph. One night in December 861, as Al-Mutawakkil was carousing with a court favorite, the Turkish conspirators rushed into the chamber. The Caliph tried to defend himself, but he and his companion were cut down and killed. Al-Muntasir, who had been waiting nearby, was immediately saluted as the new Caliph. The fifteen-year reign of Al-Mutawakkil, remembered for its return to orthodoxy but also for its cruel tyranny, bigotry, and self-indulgence, came to a bloody end.
The murder of Al-Mutawakkil ushered in a decade of anarchy and terror, during which the Caliphate became the helpless plaything of the Turkish military leaders, who deposed and murdered four Caliphs in rapid succession.
Al-Muntasir and Al-Musta'in
Al-Muntasir, who had conspired in his own father's murder, reigned for only six months before dying, possibly from poison. Fearing the revenge of his brothers, the Turkish chiefs who now controlled the succession bypassed them and chose another 'Abbasid prince, Al-Musta'in. The Arab and Persian troops in Bagdad, angered by the choice, rioted but were brutally suppressed by the Turkish guard. The empire, with its treasury empty and its provinces in rebellion, fell into chaos.
A quarrel among the Turkish leaders in the capital, Samarra, soon put the Caliph's life in danger. In 865, Al-Musta'in, along with two of the leading Turkish generals, Bogha and Wasif, escaped down the Tigris to Bagdad. Enraged, the Turkish troops remaining in Samarra declared him deposed and proclaimed his cousin, Al-Mo'tazz, as the new Caliph. This led to a devastating civil war. For a year, the Turkish army from Samarra besieged Bagdad. In the end, Al-Musta'in's supporters deserted him, and he was forced to abdicate. Despite being promised a safe retirement, he was soon after murdered by an assassin sent by Al-Mo'tazz.
Al-Mo'tazz
The reign of Al-Mo'tazz was cruel and disastrous. To secure his throne, he had his own two brothers, who were popular favorites, put to death. He was unable to quell the rebellions raging across the empire, and in Egypt, a Turkish officer named Ahmed ibn Tulun began to establish the powerful and independent Tulunid dynasty.
The Caliphate's finances collapsed completely. The Turkish, African, and Persian troops, whose salaries had been in arrears for months, mutinied. They dragged Al-Mo'tazz from his chambers, beat him brutally, and forced him to abdicate. He was then thrown into a chamber and left without food or water, where he died after three days.
Al-Mohtadi
The Turks then chose Al-Mohtadi, a son of the Caliph Al-Wathik. He was a virtuous and energetic ruler, and in another era, he might have restored life to the Caliphate. He immediately began to reform the licentious court, banning wine, music, and games, and he sat daily in open court to hear the grievances of the people.
But he came too late. He was soon entangled in the deadly rivalries of the Turkish generals. After a failed attempt to play one faction against another, the main body of the Turkish army marched on the palace. Al-Mohtadi made a brave last stand with his few remaining loyal guards, but he was overwhelmed. The victorious Turks captured him, tortured him to force his abdication, and then murdered him. His reformist reign had lasted less than a year.
The Regency of Al-Muwaffak
Upon the murder of Al-Mohtadi, the Turkish leaders chose Al-Mo'tamid, the eldest surviving son of Al-Mutawakkil, as the next Caliph. Al-Mo'tamid, however, was a weak and pleasure-loving ruler, and real power was immediately assumed by his able and energetic brother, Al-Muwaffak, who became regent of the empire. For the next two decades, Al-Muwaffak, supported by his own son, the future Caliph Al-Mo'tadid, skillfully and bravely guided the state, restoring a measure of vigor and prosperity to the Caliphate. The Caliph Al-Mo'tamid, meanwhile, was often little more than a figurehead, at times kept in virtual confinement by his powerful brother.
The Great Zenj Rebellion
The dominant event of this period was the massive and devastating rebellion of the Zenj, black slaves imported from East Africa to work in the saltpeter mines of Lower Mesopotamia. The revolt was led by a Persian adventurer claiming descent from 'Ali who styled himself the "Lord of the Zenj." Promising them freedom and wealth, he roused the vast slave population to a furious insurrection.
For fourteen years, this servile war ravaged the south of the empire. The Zenj defeated army after army sent against them. They sacked the great cities of Al-Basra, Wasit, and Al-Ahwaz, committing horrific massacres and carrying off the women as captives. At last, Al-Muwaffak was able to take the field in person. He and his son led a long and arduous campaign in the difficult marshlands of the delta. After a three-year siege, they finally stormed the Zenj capital, Al-Mokhtara. The "Lord of the Zenj" was killed, his head sent in triumph to Bagdad, and the rebellion was finally crushed with immense slaughter.
The Saffarid and Tulunid Dynasties
While the Caliphate was engaged in this life-and-death struggle, two powerful new dynasties arose, further fragmenting the empire. In the East, the Saffarid dynasty was founded by Ya'kub the Coppersmith. He challenged the Caliph's authority directly, marching on Bagdad itself before being defeated. His brother 'Amr, who succeeded him, was at times recognized as the ruler of the East, but at other times was at war with the regent.
In the West, Ahmed ibn Tulun, a Turkish officer, established the powerful Tulunid dynasty in Egypt. He was a wise and able ruler under whom Egypt flourished, and he soon extended his independent rule over Syria. The Caliph Al-Mo'tamid, chafing under his brother's control, even made a secret plot to escape to the protection of Ibn Tulun in Egypt, but the plan was discovered and thwarted by Al-Muwaffak.
The End of the Reign
Al-Muwaffak died in 891, having first transferred his powers as regent to his son, Al-Mo'tadid. The Caliph Al-Mo'tamid was then forced to disinherit his own son and publicly recognize his nephew, Al-Mo'tadid, as the heir-apparent. The Caliph did not long survive this humiliation and died the following year, after a reign of twenty-three years in which he had held little more than the title of his office.
The Reign of Al-Mo'tadid
Al-Mo'tadid, who succeeded his father as regent and then his uncle as Caliph in 892, continued the revival of the Caliphate's power. He was a brave and energetic ruler who personally led his armies, successfully restoring 'Abbasid authority in Mesopotamia and the western provinces of Persia, which had become more or less independent.
He was tolerant towards the house of 'Ali, but held an intense hatred for the memory of the Umeiyads, whom he had publicly anathematized in the Friday prayers. He was also known for the cruelty of his punishments. His main foreign policy challenge was the powerful Tulunid dynasty in Egypt. After the death of the dynasty's second ruler, Khomarweih, the kingdom weakened, and Al-Mo'tadid was able to force a treaty that regained two provinces for the Caliphate and secured a yearly tribute.
The Reign of Al-Muktafi and the Reconquest of Egypt
Al-Mo'tadid's son, Al-Muktafi, succeeded him in 902. He was a just and generous ruler, and his accession was popular. He abolished his father's secret prisons in Bagdad and destroyed their dungeons.
The chief event of his reign was the reconquest of Egypt. The Tulunid dynasty, after thirty years of independent rule, had collapsed into anarchy and strife. Al-Muktafi sent his best general, Mohammad ibn Suleiman, to invade the province. He was joined by a fleet from Tarsus that entered the Nile. The Tulunid forces were defeated, and their last ruler, Harun, was killed in the fighting. Egypt was thus restored to the direct rule of the Caliphate. The captured Tulunid family and all their property were transported to Bagdad.
During both reigns, hostilities continued with the Byzantine Empire, with raids and prisoner exchanges but no decisive outcome. A new and dangerous threat also emerged from the Carmathian sect, a fanatical group that began to ravage Syria. After a successful and popular reign of nearly seven years, during which he restored the security of the empire, Al-Muktafi died.
This chapter provides an overview of several powerful and often violent Shi'a sects that arose to challenge the 'Abbasid Caliphate, tracing their origins to a common Ismailian root.
The Ismailians and Carmathians
The Ismailians, or "Seveners," originated from a dispute over the succession after the sixth Shi'a Imam. They followed his son Isma'il and developed an esoteric and mystic faith, taught to novices under an oath of secrecy. Their doctrines included the transmigration of souls and the belief in the immanence of divinity in a coming Mehdi (Messiah).
From this school arose the Carmathians, a fanatical and violent offshoot founded by a disciple named Karmath. They established a communistic society and launched a series of savage campaigns that terrorized Arabia, Syria, and Al-'Irak for many years. Their leaders, claiming to be messengers of the coming Mehdi, led their followers in massacres and pillaging. In one "diabolical design," they ambushed the great pilgrim caravans returning from Mecca, slaughtering twenty thousand pilgrims and capturing vast riches.
Their outrages culminated in 929 A.D. with the sack of Mecca itself. They stormed the Holy City during the pilgrimage season, massacred its inhabitants, desecrated the holy sites, and in a final act of supreme sacrilege, carried off the sacred Black Stone from the Ka'ba. The stone was not returned for over twenty years. The Carmathians were eventually curbed by the intervention of the Fatimid Caliph.
The Fatimid Dynasty
The Fatimids were another, more successful, branch of the Ismailian movement. The dynasty was founded by 'Obeidallah, who claimed descent from Isma'il and, through him, from the Prophet's daughter Fatima. After many perilous adventures, he established a rival Caliphate in North Africa in 909 A.D., taking the title of Al-Mehdi.
His dynasty, the Fatimids, grew in power and eventually conquered Egypt in 969 A.D. There they founded a new capital, Cairo, which became the seat of their brilliant Caliphate. For two centuries, they ruled over Egypt and often controlled Syria and the Holy Cities, posing a constant threat to the 'Abbasid Caliphate in Bagdad.
The Druses and Assassins
From the Fatimid dynasty, two other famous sects emerged. The Druses of Lebanon originated as followers of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim, a cruel and eccentric ruler whom they came to worship as an incarnation of the Deity and whose return they still await.
About the same time, a Persian fanatic established another offshoot, the Assassins. This secret order, led by a grand master from his mountain stronghold, used targeted assassination to exert political power. They became a terror to the princes of the East and gained a sinister fame in Europe during the time of the Crusades.
The Caliphate, though briefly revived under the two preceding rulers, now entered a period of steep and irreversible decline, with a succession of weak Caliphs becoming helpless puppets in the hands of their courtiers and military commanders.
The Reign of Al-Muktadir
Al-Muktadir was made Caliph in 907 at the age of thirteen. His long, twenty-five-year reign was one of continuous decay. A weak and foolish ruler, he was a mere tool in the hands of his mother, the women of his harem, and a series of corrupt favorites. The administration was in a constant state of chaos, with thirteen different Wazirs rising and falling from power.
An early attempt to depose him was crushed by the powerful commander-in-chief, Munis, who became the de facto ruler of the empire. For years, Munis bravely defended the Caliphate against Byzantine incursions and internal threats. However, the court, resentful of his power, constantly intrigued against him. The treasury was emptied to pay for the Caliph's boundless extravagance, and on one occasion, the troops, their pay in arrears, briefly deposed Al-Muktadir before Munis had him restored.
Finally, Munis, thwarted by the court's corruption, retired to Mosul. The foolish Caliph was persuaded to march out with an army against his own loyal general. In the resulting skirmish outside the city gates, Al-Muktadir, clad in the Prophet's mantle, was slain. His miserable reign left the Caliphate in a state of ruin and decay.
The Reign of Al-Kahir
The courtiers, fearing the son of the murdered Caliph, chose Al-Muktadir's brother, Al-Kahir, as his successor. He proved to be an even more miserable ruler. With an outward display of piety, he went to every excess of cruelty and extortion, torturing the mother and family of his predecessor to seize their vast wealth. To secure his own power, he had the powerful general Munis treacherously executed. His tyranny soon provoked a conspiracy at his own court. He was seized by the plotters, deposed, blinded, and cast into prison.
The Reign of Ar-Radi and the Amir al-Umara
Ar-Radi, the son of Al-Muktadir, was then placed on the throne. His reign is notable for the creation of a new office, the Amir al-Umara, or "Commander of Commanders." This supreme title was given to a military dictator who wielded all secular power, leaving the Caliph with only the spiritual dignity of his office and a nominal authority.
The Caliphate had by now almost completely disintegrated. The East was gone; Africa and Egypt were independent under their own dynasties, as were parts of Syria and Mesopotamia. Arabia was controlled by native chiefs and the Carmathians. The Caliph's actual temporal rule had shrunk to the city of Bagdad and its immediate vicinity.
Ar-Radi died at the age of thirty-three. He is often called the last of the "real" Caliphs—not in terms of power, but because he was the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies with philosophers and divines, and to manage the affairs of state in a way that resembled the Caliphs of old, even if he was merely the dependent of another. With him, the last vestiges of the Caliph's effective authority vanished.
The period covered by the reigns of the next two Caliphs, Al-Muttaki and Al-Mustakfi, was one of utter chaos, as the Caliphate became a helpless prize to be fought over by rival military warlords.
The Reign of Al-Muttaki
Al-Muttaki was placed on the throne in 941, but his authority was entirely nominal. Real power was held by a succession of military dictators, each holding the title of Amir al-Umara (Commander of Commanders). When the first of these, Bajkam, was killed by a band of marauding Kurds, Bagdad descended into anarchy. Rival chiefs fought for control of the city, and the unfortunate Caliph was forced to flee with whichever faction was losing at the moment.
At one point, Al-Muttaki sought refuge with the Hamdanid princes of Mosul, who were establishing their own powerful dynasty in Mesopotamia. They escorted him back to Bagdad, but were soon driven out by another Turkish general, Tuzun, who became the new master of the city. Fearing Tuzun, the Caliph again attempted to flee, but the general lured him back with the most sacred oaths of loyalty. Despite these solemn promises, Tuzun immediately seized the Caliph, deposed him, and had his sight destroyed.
The Reign of Al-Mustakfi and the Buweihid Takeover
Tuzun then installed Al-Muttaki's brother as the new Caliph, with the title Al-Mustakfi. The new Caliph was as powerless as his predecessor. Meanwhile, a new and formidable power had arisen in the East: the Buweihids, a Persian Shi'a dynasty that had conquered most of Persia and now threatened Bagdad itself.
After Tuzun's death, his successor was unable to resist the Buweihid advance. The Buweihid leader, Mo'izz ad-Daula, entered Bagdad in 945 and assumed the title of Amir al-Umara. The Caliph was forced to render an abject submission. A few weeks later, Mo'izz ad-Daula, fearing that the Caliph was plotting against him, took decisive action. In a dramatic scene in the audience hall, two of his officers rushed forward, dragged Al-Mustakfi from his throne, and carried him away. He was deposed and blinded, and the Buweihids, a foreign Shi'a dynasty, were now the absolute masters of the Sunni Caliph in Bagdad.
For a century, from 946 to 1055, the Caliphate was dominated by the Buweihid dynasty, a powerful Persian Shi'a house. During this period, the 'Abbasid Caliph was reduced to a mere spiritual figurehead, a puppet in the hands of his new masters.
A Captive Caliphate
The Buweihids, being Shi'a, had little reverence for the Sunni Caliphate. They were only prevented from replacing the 'Abbasids with a Caliph from the house of 'Ali by the practical fear that such a figure would be too powerful for them to control. Thus, they kept the 'Abbasid Caliph in place but stripped him of all temporal power. The Caliph had no Wazir and was maintained on a meager allowance, his only real function being to grant the patent of investiture to the ruling Buweihid prince. While his spiritual authority was still acknowledged by orthodox Sunni rulers abroad, this had no effect on his captive state in Bagdad.
The Reigns of Al-Muti' and At-Tai'
The first Caliph under the Buweihids was Al-Muti'. His reign was marked by the public establishment of Shi'a rituals in Bagdad, including the official mourning for Al-Hosein and the public cursing of the first Caliphs. This enraged the city's Sunni population and led to constant sectarian strife and riots. After nearly thirty years as Caliph, Al-Muti' suffered from paralysis and was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, At-Tai'.
At-Tai's reign was similarly devoid of power. After seventeen years, he was unceremoniously deposed by a Buweihid ruler who coveted his personal property and had him cast into prison.
The Reigns of Al-Kadir and Al-Kaim
In his place, the Buweihids chose his cousin Al-Kadir, who was destined to hold the office for forty years. Pious and able, Al-Kadir managed to restore some dignity to the Caliphate. He is famous for issuing the "Kadiri Creed," a document that defined and defended the tenets of orthodox Sunni Islam against the doctrines of the Mo'tazilites and the Shi'a.
Al-Kadir was succeeded by his son, Al-Kaim. During his long reign, the Buweihid dynasty, weakened by internal quarrels, began to collapse. Bagdad was consumed by unceasing violence between the Shi'a and Sunni factions. At this moment of chaos, a new and powerful force emerged from the East: the Seljuk Turks, a staunchly Sunni people led by their great chief, Toghril Beg.
Welcomed by the Caliph as a deliverer, Toghril Beg entered Bagdad in 1055. He took the last Buweihid prince prisoner, ending the dynasty's century-long rule over the capital. The era of Persian Shi'a domination was over, and the Caliphate now passed under the control of the Seljuk Turks.
The Seljuk Era
The Caliphate now passed under the control of the Seljuk Turks, a powerful and staunchly Sunni dynasty. Their great leader, Toghril Beg, was welcomed into Bagdad by the Caliph Al-Kaim. After a brief but violent uprising by a partisan of the old Buweihid dynasty who declared allegiance to the rival Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, Toghril Beg crushed the rebellion and restored the 'Abbasid Caliph to his throne.
Under the next two powerful Seljuk Sultans, Alp Arslan and Melik Shah, the spiritual authority of the Bagdad Caliphate was recognized throughout their vast and ever-expanding empire. Arabia and the Holy Cities were recovered from Fatimid control, and once again, the 'Abbasid name was honored in the prayers at Mecca and Medina. The Caliphs, though still politically powerless, were treated with great reverence by their new masters.
The First Crusade and Muslim Indifference
After the death of Melik Shah, the great Seljuk empire began to break apart into contending factions. It was at this moment of division that the First Crusade arrived in Syria. The "Franks," as they were called, besieged and captured Jerusalem. The news of the fall of the Holy City, including the Mosque of 'Omar, into infidel hands caused great consternation in Bagdad.
Crowds of refugees, joined by the city's populace, cried out for war against the invaders. Insurgents twice stormed the Great Mosque during the Friday service, breaking the pulpit and shouting down the prayers. But it was all in vain. Neither the Seljuk Sultan nor the Caliph had the will or the resources to respond, being entirely preoccupied with their own internal power struggles.
A Brief Revival of the Caliph's Power
As the Seljuk authority in Bagdad weakened, the Caliphs began to reassert a measure of temporal power. Al-Mustarshid, a man of courage and ambition, raised his own army and took the field himself, at times against rival warlords, and at other times against the Seljuk Sultan himself. During his reign, the famous warrior Zengi of Mosul rose to prominence as the first great Muslim leader to effectively challenge the Crusaders. Al-Mustarshid was eventually defeated and captured by the Seljuk Sultan and was later murdered in his tent, possibly by an Assassin. His son and successor was also deposed by the Sultan.
The next Caliph, Al-Muktafi, was more successful. He bravely defended Bagdad against a Seljuk attack and managed to carve out a small, independent state for the Caliphate, centered on Bagdad and the province of Al-'Irak. Meanwhile, the Crusades raged on, and Nur ed-Din, the son of Zengi, rose to fame as the new champion of Islam.
The era concluded with the end of the rival Fatimid Caliphate. The great warrior Saladin took control of Egypt and, upon the death of the last Fatimid ruler, restored the spiritual supremacy of the 'Abbasid Caliph of Bagdad.
The long reign of the Caliph An-Nasir, from 1180 to 1225, was a final and ambitious attempt to restore the Caliphate to its ancient power. It was, however, a flicker of an expiring flame, and An-Nasir's treacherous foreign policy would ultimately unleash the very force that would destroy his dynasty.
Rivalry with the Khwarizm Shah
Ambitious, selfish, and cruel, An-Nasir's grand objective was to crush the Seljuk power and build his own upon its ruins. To this end, he instigated a war between the Seljuk Sultan and the powerful Khwarizm Shah, Takash, who ruled a vast kingdom in the East. The Shah defeated and killed the last Seljuk Sultan, and was recognized as the supreme ruler of the East.
With the Seljuks gone, however, the Khwarizm Shah became the Caliph's new and more dangerous rival. A bitter enmity grew between Bagdad and the Eastern court. The new Shah, Mohammad, became so exasperated with the Caliph that he resolved to destroy him. He had a council of doctors declare An-Nasir deposed and nominated a descendant of 'Ali as a rival Caliph. He then marched with a massive army to attack Bagdad. The city was saved only by what was seen as an act of God: the Shah's army was caught in a sudden, catastrophic snowstorm in the mountains and was almost entirely destroyed.
The Mongol Storm
In a final, desperate, and treacherous act, An-Nasir is said to have secretly invited the rising power of Jenghiz Khan and his Mongol hordes to attack the Khwarizm Shah. This appeal to a pagan conqueror to attack a Muslim kingdom is described as the "foulest blot" on the Caliph's name. Whether instigated by the Caliph or not, the Mongol invasion that followed was devastating. The hordes of Jenghiz Khan overran the Khwarizmian empire, leaving a trail of ruin and slaughter.
The Last Good Caliphs
An-Nasir was succeeded by his son, Az-Zahir, and then his grandson, Al-Mustansir. Both were just, wise, and pious rulers who sought to restore the Caliphate. Az-Zahir's short reign was praised for its justice, while Al-Mustansir was an active and able ruler who built mosques and schools, and strengthened the army in a final attempt to revive 'Abbasid power. Their reigns were a brief gleam of expiring splendor before the final catastrophe.
The Last Caliph of Bagdad
Al-Musta'sim became Caliph in 1242. He was a weak, miserly, and improvident ruler in whose hands the Caliphate, even in quieter times, would have fared ill. His court was paralyzed by a bitter rivalry between his chief secretary and his Wazir, Ibn al-Alkami. While the Caliph's government was beset by internal strife, the Mongol leader, Hulagu, having destroyed the Assassins, was preparing from afar for a final, fatal irruption into the West.
Hulagu sent a threatening embassy to Bagdad. He rebuked the Caliph for not aiding him against the Assassins and demanded that he dismantle the city's defenses and come in person to submit. Al-Musta'sim's court was divided; the Wazir advised submission, while the secretary urged defiance. The Caliph chose the latter course, sending back a haughty and boastful reply, warning the Mongol of the wrath of God and the might of the entire Muslim world.
The Siege and Fall of Bagdad
Angered by the Caliph's defiance, Hulagu made his Tartar hordes converge upon the fated city. The weakling Caliph vacillated between attempting to gather troops and sending offers of tribute. In January 1258, the Mongols routed a small 'Abbasid force and laid siege to both sides of the city.
Al-Musta'sim's attempts to plead for mercy failed. After Hulagu stormed part of the city, he tricked the Caliph's commanders into coming out of the city to negotiate, at which point he had them and their followers massacred. The Caliph was then forced to go out to the Mongol camp.
The next day, the sack of Bagdad began. For a week, the city was given over to plunder, massacre, and fire. The population was slaughtered, and the city, with its palaces, mosques, and colleges, was laid to ruin in one of the most cruel and bloody events in history.
The End of the 'Abbasid Dynasty
After the sack, Hulagu visited the Caliph's plundered palace and mocked him for his miserliness. A few days later, Al-Musta'sim and his sons were put to death. According to tradition, to avoid spilling royal blood, the Caliph was rolled up in a carpet and trampled to death by horses.
Thus, in 1258, the 'Abbasid dynasty, after having lasted for over five centuries, came to a violent and tragic end.
The Shadow Caliphate in Egypt
Three years after the fall of Bagdad, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, Beibars, sought to legitimize his rule by re-establishing the 'Abbasid Caliphate. He found a refugee of 'Abbasid descent and, after having his lineage verified, installed him as Caliph in Cairo with great ceremony. Beibars even supported the new Caliph's ambition to retake Bagdad from the Mongols. However, fearing the rise of a restored and powerful Caliphate, Beibars withdrew his main support. The Caliph proceeded with a small force, was defeated by the Mongols, and was killed on the battlefield.
The following year, Beibars installed another 'Abbasid scion as Caliph, but on an entirely different footing. This and all subsequent Caliphs in Cairo were mere priestly attendants at the Mamluk court. They were kept under surveillance in the citadel, their function reduced to providing a formal, religious blessing at the succession of each new Sultan and leading public prayers. For two and a half centuries, this line of powerless, "spurious" Caliphs was maintained by the Mamluk kings.
The Ottoman Conquest
A new power, the Osmanli or Ottoman Turks, now arose in the East. After conquering Asia Minor and Byzantium, the Ottoman Sultan Selim turned his attention to the Mamluk kingdom. After a long struggle, the Mamluk army was defeated, and Selim conquered Egypt in 1517.
Selim took the last 'Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mutawakkil, with him to Constantinople. At first, Al-Mutawakkil was held in high honor, but he later fell into disgrace and was imprisoned. Eventually, he was forced to formally cede his rights and title as Caliph into the hands of the Ottoman Sultan. He then retired to Egypt, where he died some years later.
Thus ended the last shadow of the 'Abbasid Caliphate. By virtue of this cession of title, the Ottoman Sultans of Turkey have ever since laid claim to the Caliphate and the spiritual leadership of the Muslim world.
This final chapter presents a review of the Caliphate's history, comparing its two great dynasties and offering a critical perspective on the nature of Islamic society and governance.
Umeiyad and 'Abbasid Rule Compared
The Umeiyad Caliphate was distinctly Arab in character. Its power was built upon the martial fire and hardy life of the Arab race, which formed the prop and pillar of the empire. The 'Abbasid dynasty marked a profound change. Suspicious of the Arabs, the 'Abbasids shifted their reliance to Turkish and Persian adventurers, who were given the chief military and civil commands. The old Arab aristocracy was replaced by a new class of government officials, and the Arabs themselves, no longer the ruling class, either settled into a life of luxury or retired to their desert wilds.
The influence of Persia was paramount at the 'Abbasid court. On one hand, this introduced an era of science, philosophy, and art that became the glory of the dynasty. On the other, it enervated the simple vigor of the early Muslims and introduced the customs of a despotic court.
The Great Schism and the Nature of Islamic Rule
To counter the claims of their 'Alid rivals, the 'Abbasids became champions of Sunni orthodoxy, a political decision that permanently solidified the great schism between the Sunni and Shi'a sects. This division, with Persia becoming the great supporter of the Shi'a cause, has ever since weakened the aggressive force of Islam.
The author argues that Islamic civilization has shown no progress towards free and liberal institutions because the spiritual and secular spheres are "hopelessly confounded." The only form of government is the absolute and autocratic monarch, checked only by the law of the Kor'an and popular sentiment. Social life, according to the author, is blighted by polygamy, servile concubinage, and the seclusion of women, which weaken the family and sap the vigor of the nation. The review concludes that intolerance and religious warfare are a direct result of the Kor'an's commands to fight against unbelievers.
A Stationary Civilization?
The author's final verdict is that the spiritual, social, and dogmatic aspects of Islam have not materially changed since the days of the Caliphate. He argues that while Christian nations may advance, Islam stands still, and as long as it is bound by its foundational texts, it will remain "stationary."
A final note, added by the editor in 1915, acknowledges that this view was widely held but points to the recent political awakenings in Turkey and Persia as a sign of potential change. These movements were seen as national and patriotic rather than purely religious. However, the editor ends on a note of uncertainty, questioning whether the outbreak of the World War and the actions of the "Young Turks" might signal a return to the old ways.