Al-Muḥāsibī (781-857 CE) was a foundational figure in Islamic thought, credited with establishing the Baghdad School of Islamic philosophy, which uniquely combined Kalam (theology) and Sufism. His teachings emphasize constant self-examination (muhasaba), the purification of the heart, and asceticism as a path to spiritual ascent. He played a crucial role in shaping mainstream Sufi doctrine and profoundly influenced subsequent theologians like al-Ghazālī. Living during the intellectual ferment of Abbasid Baghdad, al-Muḥāsibī engaged in theological debates, particularly against the Mu'tazilites, while simultaneously drawing from diverse Islamic, Jewish, Christian, and Hellenistic sources. His comprehensive works detail the inner life, the nature of sin, the process of repentance, the enemies of the soul, and the ultimate goal of gnosis and union with God.
II. Biographical Background and Intellectual Context
Name and Meaning: Abū ‘Abdallāh Ḥārith ibn Asad ibn ‘Abdallāh al-‘Anīzī al-Baṣrī. His surname, al-Muḥāsibī, means "self-inspection" or "audit," directly reflecting his core teaching.
Early Life and Education: Born in Basra around 781 CE, he moved to Baghdad shortly after. He was a student of al-Shafi'i and deeply influenced by al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī's asceticism. He refused his wealthy father's inheritance due to his father's belief in the createdness of the Qur'an.
Baghdad as an Intellectual Hub: Al-Muḥāsibī lived during the "Golden Age" of Abbasid Baghdad (founded 762 CE), a center of trade and intellectual exchange that assimilated knowledge from Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian civilizations. This environment fostered diverse theological currents, including the rise of the Mu'tazilites and the development of orthodox schools of thought.
Intellectual Lineage:Teacher of Renowned Sufis: He taught prominent Sufi masters such as Junayd al-Baghdadi and Sirrī Saqṭī.
Influence on Al-Ghazālī: His ideas significantly shaped the work of later theologians, most notably al-Ghazālī, underscoring his lasting impact on Islamic thought.
Persecution and Seclusion: Despite his efforts to refute Mu'tazilite doctrines using dialectical methods, al-Muḥāsibī faced persecution from Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who represented a traditionalist reaction against theological speculation. His writings were banned, and he was forced into seclusion in Baghdad, dying in 857 CE with only a few attendees at his funeral due to Hanbalite hostility.
III. Core Teachings and Doctrines
A. The Doctrine of Self-Examination (Muhasaba) and Asceticism (Zuhd)
Centrality of Self-Scrutiny: Al-Muḥāsibī's name itself highlights his core teaching: "constant self-examination in anticipation of the Day of Judgment." This practice aims to "cultivate a deep awareness of the inner self and to purify the heart."
Critique of Outward Piety: While acknowledging the value of Sufi practices (woolen clothing, night prayers, limited food), he warned against the "potential dangers" of outward piety, which "can conceal inner spiritual maladies like hypocrisy and pride." The goal is rectifying both "the inner and outward states of a person."
Renunciation of the World: Essential to self-correction is "renouncing this world." He states, "For if you think of this world, you will not find it worth sacrificing your soul and faith for it... This world is abhorred of God almighty and the messengers. It is an abode of affliction and a station of foolishness. Be on your guard from it."
Asceticism as a Means: Asceticism (zuhd) and scrupulous abstinence (wara') are crucial means for purification, aimed at breaking the power of the lower self and detaching from worldly attractions.
B. Psychological Theory and the Inner Life
Al-Muḥāsibī's sophisticated psychological theory is rooted in the Qur'an but provides a detailed analysis of the self and its faculties.
The Heart (Qalb): The "essence of the self and the central organ of inner life." It is "the locus of consciousness, where reality is perceived and interpreted," and "the point of union between the body and soul." Its purity determines salvation or perdition.
Duality of the Soul (Nafs): A spiritual warfare exists between:
Higher Soul (Ruh): The divine gift, striving towards the higher life and consciousness of the Divine.
Lower Soul (Nafs): The seat of "appetites and passions," rebellious and "always in opposition to what is pleasing to God." It must be trained through "constant discipline" to become the "soul at rest."
Reason ('Aql): A "natural disposition or instinct bestowed by God," a "light placed in the heart" that helps "discriminate between what is morally good and evil."
Knowledge ('Ilm) and Gnosis (Ma'rifa):'Ilm: Outward knowledge of the world and inward spiritual knowledge of the hereafter, acquired through reflection (tafakkur), consideration, and remembrance (dhikr). "Reflection... is one of the most important 'works of the heart.' For a single hour, it is better than service for a whole year."
Ma'rifa (Gnosis): The highest knowledge, "a divine gift, a light which God casts into the heart." It is "an inner intuition or insight that deals with Reality, an intimate comprehension of Him that is not a product of the intellect but a supernatural process."
Intention (Niya) and the Will: The "essential part of action is the intention, which must be free from all tinge of hypocrisy and self-interest." A "sincere intention is to seek for God's reward and to obey God in all you do." This unification of will frees the soul for divine gifts.
C. The Relationship Between Creator and Creature
Servanthood: The first step to purification is understanding oneself as "a servant under God's authority." Salvation is only possible through "obedience to your Lord and Master."
Purpose of Creation: Humans were "not created for idle pleasure but were placed in this world for trial and experience, to choose whether to obey or disobey God."
D. The Nature of Sin and Its Enemies
Sin as Disobedience: Sin is "a deliberate disobedience, a rebellion that appears in moral and intellectual forms" and "causes a separation between the human and the Divine."
Three Enemies of the Soul:The Self (Nafs): The internal enemy, dominated by concupiscence and self-satisfaction. "Obedience to this self means destruction in this life and damnation in the next."
The World (Dunya): The external enemy, representing "sinful humanity as a whole, a society that lives apart from God." "The love of this world and its glory as the root of all evil and the chief of sins."
Iblis (The Adversary): Satan, who "attacks the soul from both without and within," using "many wiles, delusions, and false arguments to deceive men."
Temptation: Permitted by God as a test. It "must be repelled at once," for if not rejected, "the self's natural propensity towards evil will find the suggestion sweet and respond to it."
Capital Sins: He details sins of the heart, including:
Hypocrisy (Riya'): "The desire for something besides God—such as the praise of men—that defiles the action."
Pride ('Ujb): "A form of self-esteem that gives the self the place which should be given to God, an inordinate love of self that leads to rebellion."
Envy/Jealousy: Hatred of good for others and the desire for their deprivation.
Avarice: Withholding what is due to God or giving grudgingly.
Sins of the Tongue: "Fear your tongue more than you fear wild beasts," encompassing anger, backbiting, calumny, etc.
Self-Delusion (Ghirra): To "continue in sin and disobedience while claiming that one's hope is in His mercy."
E. The Path of Repentance and Mortification
Repentance (Tawba): The "first station of pilgrims," a turning from sin to God. It involves:
Recollection of God: Divine grace brings this to the heart.
Shame: "An essential part of contrition," fruit of a broken heart.
Reparation: Atoning for wrongs and making restitution.
Determination: A resolve "not to return to that sin nor to do anything of the kind for ever."
Mortification (Mujahada) and Self-Discipline (Riyada): The "greater warfare," a struggle against oneself to attain detachment.
Purification of Motive: Ensuring sincerity for God's sake alone.
Mortification of Specific Sins: Humility for pride, acceptance for jealousy, cutting off desire for avarice, silence for sins of the tongue.
General Mortification: Constant control of outward senses (hearing, eyes, tongue).
Inner Mortification: "Purification of the inner self—of feeling, thought, and will." This leads to "self-examination, in order that sin may be prevented at its source."
F. The Role of Divine Grace and Key Virtues
Divine Grace (Nur al-Qulub): Revealed to those who subdue themselves, it is a "light supernatural" that illuminates hearts and empowers the will to conform to God's will.
Key Virtues (Maqamat): Stages acquired through human effort:
Faith (Iman): From common folk (authority) to theologians (reason) to gnostics (soul's vision of the Unseen).
Dependence (Tawakkul) and Trust (Thiga): Reliance on God alone.
Hope (Raja'): Longing for what is loved, accompanied by action.
Holy Fear (Khawf): Awe and reverence of a servant, highest when mingled with love.
Godliness (Taqwa): Practical obedience to God's commands.
Charity, Justice, Patience (Sabr), Gratitude (Shukr): Essential for spiritual progress.
Mystical States (Ahwal): Spiritual moods (longing, intimacy, joy) that "descend from God upon the heart of the mystic without his being able to repel them when they come or to attract them when they go."
G. Prayer and the Path to Contemplation
Forms of Prayer: Both congregational (remedy for the heedless, incentive for the lazy) and personal (supererogatory night prayers for quiet contemplation).
Presence of the Heart: The "essential condition" for effective prayer. "A prayer offered with a heedless heart is an insult to God."
Inner Acts of Devotion:Meditation (Fikr): A "work of the heart" for acquiring wisdom and filling the heart with gratitude, awe, and hope.
Affective Prayer: Engaging emotions in supplication.
Recollection (Dhikr): "The food of the soul" and "polish of the heart," constant remembrance of God, leading to contemplation.
Aids to Devotion: Solitude (removes distractions) and Silence (safeguard from sins of the tongue, fosters inward recollection).
Contemplative Prayer: The "ultimate goal," where the servant is "alone with the Alone," wholly absorbed in the Divine Majesty.
IV. The Unitive Way: Gnosis, Love, and Vision
Gnosis (Ma'rifa): The "first step on the Unitive Way," a direct, intuitive knowledge of God, a "divine gift, a light which God casts into the heart."
Fellowship (Uns): Intimacy and joy in God's presence, where the "heart is weaned from all created things and is occupied only with its Lord."
Satisfaction (Rida): "The gateway of God" and "paradise of this world," the "complete acquiescence of the human will to the Divine Will." The heart ceases to make choices for itself.
Love (Mahabba): The "supreme 'station' and the ultimate cause of the mystic's ascent." Described by signs like preferring God's will, constant remembrance, and finding sorrow in distractions. "Love is a fire that consumes all that is not God."
The Beatific Vision: The "ultimate goal and the supreme reward," an "inward vision of the heart" in this world, and a "direct, face-to-face vision, unveiled and everlasting" in the next. This is "the supreme joy of Paradise."
Life of the Saints in God: Those who attain this state have their will "annihilated and replaced by the Divine Will." "It is no longer they who live, but God Who lives and acts in them."
V. Major Written Works
Al-Muḥāsibī was a prolific author with approximately 200 works, though few survive.
Kitāb al-Ri`āya li-ḥuqūq Allāh ("The Book of Observance of What is Due to God"): His greatest work, a comprehensive manual on the interior life covering self-examination, repentance, hypocrisy, sincerity, and guarding against pride.
Kitāb al-Wasaya ("Book of Religious Precepts"): Counsels for the faithful, including his own spiritual journey, emphasizing fear of God, abstinence, and heart purification.
Kitāb al-Khalwa: Articulates the principle of renunciation in a discourse on fear and hope.
Kitāb al-Tawahhum ("Book of Supposition") and Kitāb al-Ba'th wa'l-Nushur ("Book of the Rising and the Resurrection"): Eschatological meditations on the Last Day, judgment, Paradise, and Hell.
Risālat al-Makasib ("Treatise on Earning a Livelihood"): Discusses lawful and unlawful earnings, modifying quietist tendencies by affirming lawful work while advocating reliance on God.
Risālat Adab al-Nufus ("Treatise on the Training of Souls"): Focuses on self-discipline, identifying the tongue as dangerous and outlining virtues.
Kitāb Muhasabat al-Nufus ("Book of Self-Examination," also Sharh al-Ma'rifa): Explains four types of knowledge (God, Iblis, self, work of God) for aligning with God's will.
Kitāb al-Hubb lillah ("Book of Love to God"): His most mystical work, describing divine love and its signs.
VI. Influences and Lineage
Al-Muḥāsibī's work synthesizes Islamic, Jewish, Christian, and Hellenistic thought.
Primary Islamic Sources:Qur'an and Sunna: His chief authorities, drawing traditions from scholars like Yazid ibn Harun and Muhammad ibn Kathir.
Ascetic Forerunners: Heavily influenced by the "People of the Bench" (Ahl al-Suffa) and most frequently cited Hasan al-Basri, who laid the foundation for "the science of hearts."
Sufi Predecessors: Sufyan al-Thawri, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Fudayl ibn 'Iyad, Shaqiq al-Balkhi.
Influential Contemporaries: Abu Sulayman al-Darani, Ahmad ibn 'Asim al-Antaki (believed to be his teacher, whose teachings closely resemble his own), Bishr al-Hafi, Dhu'l-Nun al-Misri.
Non-Islamic Influences:Jewish Sources: Access to influential Jewish communities in Baghdad and early converts who introduced Jewish legends into Hadith.
Christian Sources: Clear knowledge of the New Testament (e.g., Parable of the Sower, Sermon on the Mount) and parallels with early Syriac Christian mystics (Aphraates, Ephraim the Syrian, Isaac of Nineveh).
Hellenistic Sources: Flourishing translations of Greek works (e.g., "Theology of Aristotle," Plato) which likely influenced his philosophical and mystical framework.
VII. Legacy
Al-Muḥāsibī's enduring legacy lies in his systematic approach to the inner life, his integration of theology and mysticism, and his emphasis on self-accountability. His teachings provided a robust framework for Sufi thought, grounding spiritual practices in rigorous self-scrutiny and an ethical code. Through his writings and the influence on disciples like Junayd al-Baghdadi, he shaped the trajectory of Sufism and Islamic spirituality for centuries to come, laying the groundwork for later luminaries like al-Ghazālī. His detailed analysis of the soul, sin, repentance, and the stages of spiritual ascent remains highly relevant for understanding Islamic mysticism.
Biographical Background and Intellectual Lineage
Al-Muḥāsibī, whose full name was Abū ‘Abdallāh Ḥārith ibn Asad ibn ‘Abdallāh al-‘Anīzī al-Baṣrī, was a prominent Arab Muslim theologian, philosopher, and ascetic who lived from 781 to 857 CE. Born in Basra around 781 to the Arab ‘Anazzah tribe, he relocated with his parents to Baghdad shortly after his birth, likely drawn by the economic prospects of the new capital. Although his father became wealthy, al-Muḥāsibī refused this inheritance due to his father's belief in the createdness of the Qur'an. He was a student of al-Shafi'i before the latter moved to Egypt and was also deeply influenced by the asceticism of al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī.
Al-Muḥāsibī is a foundational figure in Islamic thought, credited with establishing the Baghdad School of Islamic philosophy, which uniquely combined Kalam (theology) and Sufism. His influence was profound and lasting; he is considered a founder of what would become mainstream Sufi doctrine and was the teacher of renowned Sufi masters such as Junayd al-Baghdadi and Sirrī Saqṭī. His ideas also shaped the work of many subsequent theologians, most notably al-Ghazālī.
The Doctrine of Self-Examination and Asceticism
Al-Muḥāsibī’s name itself points to his core teaching, as it means "self-inspection" or "audit." While he recognized the value of contemporary Sufi practices—such as wearing woolen clothing, reciting the Qur'an at night, and limiting food intake—for controlling passions, he also perceived their potential dangers. He argued that when outward piety becomes a part of one's public image, it can conceal inner spiritual maladies like hypocrisy and pride. For al-Muḥāsibī, it was essential that both the inner and outward states of a person be rectified.
His proposed method for achieving this balance was constant self-examination in anticipation of the Day of Judgment. This practice was designed to cultivate a deep awareness of the inner self and to purify the heart. In his book, al-Khalwa, he articulated this principle in a discourse on fear and hope, stating, "Know that the first thing that corrects you and helps you correct others is renouncing this world. For renunciation is attained by realisation, and consideration is attained by reflection. For if you think of this world, you will not find it worth sacrificing your soul and faith for it. But you will find your soul worthier of honour by ridiculing this world. This world is abhorred of God almighty and the messengers. It is an abode of affliction and a station of foolishness. Be on your guard from it."
Engagement in Theological Debates
Al-Muḥāsibī was an active participant in the major theological controversies of his era. He joined a group of theological scholars led by ‘Abdullāh ibn Kullāb and al-Karībīsī that openly criticized the doctrines of the Jahmīs, Mu‘tazilīs, and the Anthropomorphists. A central point of contention was the Mu'tazilite argument that the Qur'an was created. In opposition, Ibn Kullāb, and by extension al-Muḥāsibī's circle, introduced a crucial distinction between the speech of God and its realization. They argued that God is eternally speaking, but this speech can only be addressed to an addressee once that addressee exists. This theological conflict unfolded during the Mihna, a period of religious persecution, which was ultimately ended by the Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 848 CE. Two years later, the caliph officially banned Mu'tazilite theology.
Major Written Works
Al-Muḥāsibī was a prolific author, credited with writing approximately 200 works on theology and Taṣawwuf (Sufism). Among his most significant contributions are Kitāb al-Khalwa and Kitāb al-Ri`āya li-ḥuqūq Allāh ("The Book of Observance of What is Due to God").
The Rise of Baghdad
The Abbasid Dynasty's rise to power led to the capital of the Muslim Empire being moved from Damascus to the Middle East. In A.D. 762, the Caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad on the west bank of the Tigris. For the next five hundred years, it served as the seat of the Abbasid government and a center of Muslim civilization and culture. Baghdad became a world-center for trade, with products arriving from India, China, Russia, and East Africa. More importantly, the city facilitated contact between the "House of Islam" and the ideas and cultures of older, more advanced civilizations.
An Intellectual and Religious Hub
The Abbasid rulers employed Persians and natives of Khurasan in important posts, and also utilized members of tolerated sects, such as Christians and Jews, for their expertise in bookkeeping and taxation. Government clerks were often Christians, and under Caliph al-Mu'tasim, a Christian served as Secretary of State and another was in charge of the Treasury. These contacts exposed Islamic faith and culture to external influences from Nestorian and Jacobite Christianity, influential Jewish communities with academies in Iraq, Zoroastrianism from Persia, and paganism from intellectual centers like Harran.
Under Caliph al-Mansur, the study of literature, medicine, and astronomy began, incorporating knowledge from Greece, Rome, Persia, and India. The Caliph al-Mahdi patronized music and poetry, leading to a new school of poetry influenced by Persian and Hellenistic culture. This era saw the emergence of free-thinking, and innovators were often encouraged by rulers. The reign of Harun al-Rashid marked the beginning of a great age of Islamic culture, with the establishment of numerous schools and widespread literacy. His successor, al-Ma'mun, furthered this zeal for learning by collecting Greek and Syriac works and establishing the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad, which included a library and an observatory. Christian translators were employed to render foreign books on history, science, and philosophy into Arabic.
Competing Theological Currents
The Abbasid period saw the development of the four great orthodox schools of Muslim theology, led by the Imams Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, al-Shafi'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Al-Ma'mun's reign also saw the rise of the Mu'tazilites, who championed free will and the sovereignty of reason, employing allegorical interpretation to reconcile their rationalistic views with the Quran. Al-Ma'mun himself accepted this view and encouraged freedom of religious discussion, even permitting debates between Muslims and those of other faiths. During this period, Sufism also began to rise and develop, initially in the form of asceticism and quietism.
Al-Muhasibi's Early Life and Character
Abu Abdallah Harith ibn Asad al-Muhasibi was born around A.D. 781 in Basra, a major port and intellectual center second only to Baghdad. He soon moved to Baghdad and received a thorough education, becoming acquainted with contemporary theological teachings, the methods of philosophers, and the doctrines of unorthodox schools like the Mu'tazilites. His writings also show contact with Christian and Jewish teaching. His father was a heretic, and upon his death, left Harith a fortune of thirty thousand dinars. Despite being in great poverty, Harith refused to accept any of it, citing a prophetic tradition that forbade members of different sects from inheriting from one another.
He earned the title al-Muhasibi due to his practice of frequent self-examination. He was known as the chief of the Sufi Shaykhs of Baghdad, a powerful preacher who gave new life to men's hearts. He belonged to the Shafi'i school, employed the dialectic methods of the Mu'tazilites to oppose their doctrines, and wrote against them and other heretics. He was a contemplative, known for his asceticism and his ability to work miracles. A sign of divine favor was a throbbing vein in his finger that would prevent him from touching any food of doubtful or unlawful origin. Al-Junayd, his disciple, once offered him many fine foods, but Harith could not swallow a morsel, later explaining that a pungent odor arose from unacceptable food. He then ate a piece of dry bread, advising al-Junayd to offer only such simple fare to a dervish.
Persecution and Seclusion
With the accession of Caliph Mutawakkil, a blind reaction against liberal theology set in. Mu'tazilite doctrines were declared heretical, all theological speculation was proscribed, and there was a general return to traditionalism. Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who had suffered under the Mu'tazilites, came to predominate religious affairs and began to persecute his adversaries, including al-Muhasibi. Though al-Muhasibi used dialectic methods only to refute the Mu'tazilites, his originality and mystical tendencies made him suspect.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal, though hating al-Muhasibi for engaging in speculative matters, agreed to secretly attend one of his assemblies. Hidden in an upper chamber, Ibn Hanbal listened all night as al-Muhasibi spoke to his disciples. He was moved to tears and became unconscious, later admitting he had never seen men like them nor heard such words on mystical theology. Despite this experience, he warned his host against associating with such people. Ibn Hanbal's persecution grew to the point of banning al-Muhasibi's writings and banishing him. Even after al-Muhasibi declared his repentance, Ibn Hanbal rejected it and warned others against him.
Forced to return to Baghdad, the fanatical adherence of the people to Ahmad ibn Hanbal compelled al-Muhasibi to live in seclusion and great poverty in his own house. He died in A.D. 857. Due to the hostility of the Hanbalites, only four people attended his funeral to offer the ritual prayers.
The Hidden Life of the Saint
The outward life of a saint is often uneventful, with true significance found in their inner life. The Sufis recognized this, with some placing the hidden, unrecognized saint above the one known to the people. Ma'ruf Karkhi stated that the saints of God are marked by three things: their thought is of God, their dwelling is with God, and their business is in God. Al-Junayd, a pupil of al-Muhasibi, defined Sufism as a process where God makes a person die to themselves and become alive in Him. This involves purifying the heart, subduing human nature, adhering to spiritual qualities, and faithfully observing the Truth and the Prophet's law. Al-Muhasibi's own life and writings closely followed this ideal.
Al-Muhasibi's Spiritual Search
In his "Book of Precepts," al-Muhasibi describes his own long search for salvation. He studied the different sects within the community of Islam, finding their controversies to be like a deep sea in which many were lost. He observed that each sect claimed to be the sole path to salvation and that few among them had real knowledge of spiritual things. He identified various types of adherents: the ignorant, the worldly theologian, the one with knowledge but no conviction, the imitator of the devout, the one who relies on reason but lacks piety, and those who follow lust and worldly power.
Unable to find himself among these types, he turned to the rightly guided, using meditation and long consideration of God's Word and the Sunna. He concluded that passion blinds a person to the true path. He found the way of salvation consists in cleaving to the fear of God, fulfilling His ordinances with scrupulous observance, serving God for His own sake alone, and taking the Apostle as a model. He sought out rare, God-fearing guides and found in them a preference for the next world over this one. These guides were wise in God's majesty, learned in His law, and sought to make God loved by His servants. Realizing this was the true path of the Apostles and Prophets, he pledged himself to it in his inmost self and based his faith and actions upon it. He stated that for thirty years his ear listened only to his own conscience, but for the thirty years since, his conscience has listened only to God.
Principles of the Inner Life
Al-Muhasibi taught that the root of service to God is scrupulous abstinence, which is based on godliness. This, in turn, is based on self-examination, which arises from fear and hope, which themselves come from knowledge of God's promises and warnings. He stated that when a person purifies their inmost self through meditation and perfect sincerity, God distinguishes their outward conduct with earnest endeavor. He emphasized character as the most important thing in life, dependent upon cleansing the soul from sin, especially insincerity.
He realized that spiritual perfection could only be attained through knowledge of God and knowledge of oneself, and that mere knowledge without understanding given by God's grace was useless. True acceptance of God's will means remaining steadfast during misfortune. Contentment and patience were chief qualities, and he taught that patience is knowing how to serve as a target for the arrows of adversity. He learned that a wrongdoer will be shamed, the wronged will be safe hereafter, and the contented man is rich even when hungry.
A Code of Conduct
To a disciple, al-Muhasibi gave a ten-point code for living, covering one's duty to God and neighbor. He advised: do not swear by God's name; avoid all falsehood; fulfill all obligations; curse no one, even an enemy; wish no evil to any creature; do not testify to another's infidelity, polytheism or hypocrisy; do not premeditate any sinful act; do not inflict upon others what would be a burden to you; withdraw confidence from creatures and depend on God alone; and consider yourself of less value than all other people.
The Path to Gnosis
Al-Muhasibi warned his followers to beware of a weakening of intention, as that is when the Adversary, Satan, is sure to gain victory. He saw Satan as a real and constant danger. While asceticism was his own rule of life, he saw it only as a means to an end. He distinguished between the ascetic, who renounces the world while still aware of its attractions, and the gnostic, who renounces it with complete forgetfulness. Gnosis, the direct knowledge of God, leads to salvation in and with God. He described the gnostics as those who plunge into the waters of Satisfaction and are submerged in the sea of purity, seeking the pearl of attainment until they are united with God in their inmost selves. In this state of mystic communion, the joy of fellowship with God possesses the heart and mind, and one can no longer be concerned with anything but God alone.
Al-Junayd
The most celebrated disciple and closest friend of al-Muhasibi was Abu'l-Qasim al-Junayd of Baghdad, known as the "Peacock of the Learned." His uncle and teacher, Sari Saqati, permitted him to study with al-Muhasibi, advising him to acquire his doctrine and self-training methods but to leave aside his speculative arguments. Al-Junayd's teaching focused on the soul's return to its original state in God, a concept rooted in the Primordial Covenant made before creation. He taught that the mystic must pass away from the self into the realization of God's Unicity, returning to the state in which they were before they existed as temporal beings. This unification is achieved through Love, which transforms the attributes of the lover into those of the Beloved. Al-Junayd believed that for thirty years, God had spoken through his tongue while he himself was not present.
Abu Hamza al-Baghdadi
A well-known disciple, Abu Hamza al-Baghdadi was an associate of al-Junayd and other ascetics. After a journey from Mecca, he arrived in Baghdad extremely emaciated, yet consumed a meal large enough for several people. He taught publicly in the mosque at Tarsus until a crow's cry caused him to cry out, "Here am I, at thy service," leading to accusations of heresy and incarnationism. Later, during a persecution, he was arrested and condemned to death but was eventually set free. Abu Hamza was one of the first to give formal exposition on Sufi doctrines like the perfect form of Recollection, love for God, and fellowship with Him. He taught that the heart's "absence" from the self is preferable to its "presence," because the self is the greatest veil between the creature and God.
Nuri
Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Baghawi, known as Nuri, was a pupil of both al-Muhasibi and Sari Saqati. He was called Nuri because a light (nur) was said to issue from his mouth when he spoke, or because he could read the inmost thoughts of his disciples. He was an extreme ascetic who practiced "preference," or vicarious suffering. When a fire broke out in the Baghdad slave-market, he rescued two trapped slave-boys from the flames and refused the thousand-gold-piece reward. Arrested with Abu Hamza, he offered himself to the executioner in place of another condemned Sufi, wishing to sacrifice the last moments of his life for his brethren. The act so impressed the Caliph that the execution was postponed, and they were eventually freed. Nuri taught that Sufism was enmity to the world and friendship with the Lord, and that love for God was "the rending of veils and the revealing of what is hidden."
Other Disciples and Associates
Ahmad ibn Masruq al-Tusi: A respected Sufi from Tus who lived in Baghdad. He was known for his humility and asceticism and taught that the tree of knowledge of God is nourished by the water of reflection, while the tree of love is nourished by self-giving.
Abu Bakr Isma'il ibn Ishaq Sarraj: A devoted disciple at whose house al-Muhasibi would meet with his followers. He lived a life of extreme asceticism despite his considerable wealth and was responsible for preserving much of what is known about his master's life.
Ibn Khayran: A Shafi'ite jurisconsult renowned for his scrupulousness. He refused the office of Chief Qadi, even after being kept under arrest for ten days by the Wazir.
Hasan al-Masuhi: An associate of al-Muhasibi who derived his teaching from Bishr al-Hafi. He lived in a mosque, having no home of his own, and was known for his love of solitude.
Other followers mentioned include the recluse Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Fara'idi, the traditionist al-Sufi al-Kabir, the author Abu Ja'far al-Faraji, and the ascetic Abu Abdallah al-Khawwas, who handed down many of al-Muhasibi's sayings.
Influential Contemporaries
Sari Saqati: Though not a direct disciple, he was a major figure in al-Muhasibi's circle as the uncle and teacher of al-Junayd. He was one of the first to teach on the "states" and "stations" of the mystic path. He taught that the greatest strength is the conquest of self and that love is not perfected between two until one can say to the other, "O thou who art I." He was heard to pray that God should not punish him with the humiliation of being veiled from Him.
Abu Turab al-Nakhshabi: A celebrated Shaykh of Khurasan known for his piety and extensive travels. He taught that the food of the true dervish was ecstasy, his clothing was piety, and his dwelling-place was the Unseen.
Burjulani and al-Walid ibn Shaja: Other contemporaries with whom al-Muhasibi was in contact. Burjulani was an editor of religious stories, and al-Muhasibi attended the assemblies of al-Walid, deriving some of his teaching from discussions there.
Al-Muhasibi's writings were based on his own spiritual experience and aimed to guide others to salvation, refute error, and teach the principles of the religious life. While Sufis claimed he wrote two hundred works, only a small portion has survived.
Major Works
Kitab al-Ri'aya li-huquq Allah (Book of Observance of what is due to God): This is al-Muhasibi's greatest and most famous work, considered a comprehensive manual on the interior life. Written as counsels to a disciple, it covers self-examination, repentance, hypocrisy, sincere intention, guarding against self-esteem and pride, and avoiding self-delusion. It concludes with a rule of life for maintaining constant self-discipline and mindfulness of God.
Kitab al-Wasaya (Book of Religious Precepts): A work of sincere counsel for the faithful, it begins with an account of al-Muhasibi's own search for salvation and conversion. It argues that happiness consists in holding fast to the fear of God, scrupulous abstinence, and purifying the heart. It contains a dark picture of the schisms of his time, identifying the love of this world as the root of evil, and advocates for contentment and gratitude.
Kitab al-Tawahhum (Book of Supposition): This is an eschatological meditation on Paradise and Hell. It paints a vivid picture of the Last Day, the resurrection of all creatures before the throne of God, the distribution of the records of deeds, and the final judgment. The work culminates in a description of the chosen saints being summoned to meet their Lord, where all veils are removed and they gaze upon God face to face.
Kitab al-Ba'th wa'l-Nushur (Book of the Rising and the Resurrection): Another eschatological work, this book deals mainly with the Day of Resurrection, the clothing of souls with their bodies, and the search for intercession from prophets. It relates a legend of the "infants of the faith" who wait at the gate of Paradise for their parents and describes the purification of sinful souls in Purgatory before they are admitted to the presence of God.
Risalat al-Makasib (Treatise on Earning a Livelihood): This work addresses what is lawful and unlawful in earning a living. It modifies the quietist tendencies of some predecessors by teaching that reliance upon God does not mean refraining from lawful work. It includes a section on the practices of early ascetics, such as gathering herbs, gleaning, manual labor, and retiring to monasteries, and deprecates extreme fanaticism regarding what is lawful.
Treatises on the Soul and Gnosis
Risalat Adab al-Nufus (Treatise on the Training of Souls): A work on self-discipline, it argues that the lower soul (nafs) needs constant watchfulness. It identifies the tongue as the most dangerous of the members and outlines key virtues to be cultivated, such as singlemindedness, reliance on God, gratitude, and humility. The aim of soul-training is to attain understanding (ma'rifa) of God's desires and to align one's will with His.
Kitab Muhasabat al-Nufus (Book of Self-Examination): Also known as Sharh al-Ma'rifa (Exposition of Gnosis), this treatise explains that knowledge is of four types: knowledge of God, of His enemy Iblis, of the self, and of the work of God. It teaches that attaining this knowledge enables a servant to act in accordance with God's will and follow the path to salvation.
Kitab bad man anab ila Allah (Book of the Beginning of Conversion unto God): This work appears autobiographical, describing the path a novice must take from being hindered by worldly distractions to attaining peace through toil and effort. It emphasizes that repentance begins with God's grace, but man must then discipline himself with the remembrance of death and the hereafter to attain fellowship with Him.
Other Writings
Kitab al-Masa'il (Book of Questions): Deals with practical questions about the interior and outward life, such as the merits of concealing or displaying good works, the value of supererogation, and the respective merits of silence and speech.
Risalat al-'Azama (Treatise on the Divine Majesty): Uses the teleological argument to prove the existence and unity of God, showing that the interdependence of creatures points to a unity of purpose in creation.
Kitab al-Zuhd (Book of Asceticism): Concerned with the nature of asceticism and the virtues that lead the servant to renounce the world and its attractions.
Kitab Fahm al-Salat (Book of the Comprehension of Prayer): Deals mainly with the ritual prayer but also touches on personal intercession.
Kitab Ma'iyyat al-'Aql (Book of the Essence of the Reason): A short but important treatise on psychology, it defines reason as a natural disposition bestowed by God.
Kitab al-Tawba (Book of Repentance): Regards repentance as a duty imposed by God and distinguishes between mortal and venial sins.
Kitab al-Mustarshid (Book of the Traveller on the Right Road): A practical treatise warning that sin leads to heedlessness, which hardens the heart and leads to alienation from God.
Kitab al-'Ilm (Book of Knowledge): Classifies knowledge into three types: outward knowledge of this world, inward knowledge of the next world, and knowledge of God and His laws.
Kitab al-Hubb lillah (Book of Love to God): Considered the most mystical of his writings, it describes the love of God for His saints and the signs by which these lovers may be known, culminating in the Vision of God.
Kitab al-Sabr wa'l-Rida (Book of Patience and Satisfaction): A short extant fragment on the principles of bearing patiently and accepting gladly the decrees of God.
Several of his other works, such as Kitab al-Dima (Book of the Streams of Blood) and Kitab al-Tafakkur wa'l-I'tibar (Book of Reflection and Induction), are no longer known to exist.
Al-Muhasibi lived in Baghdad at a time when it was a focus of world culture, allowing him to draw from a wide range of sources. His work was built upon a foundation of Islamic, Jewish, Christian, and Hellenistic thought.
Primary Islamic and Traditional Sources
Al-Muhasibi's first and chief authority was the Quran, followed by the Sunna (canonical law embodying the traditions of Muhammad). He derived his traditions primarily from Yazid ibn Harun, an orthodox scholar known for his fearlessness, and Muhammad ibn Kathir, who transmitted traditions with mystical tendencies. Al-Muhasibi's principle in selecting authorities was the moral value of their lives and teachings, rather than strict orthodox acceptance. His earliest sources included converted Jews like Ka'b al-Ahbar and Abdallah ibn Salam, who introduced Jewish legends into Islamic hadith. He also cited Companions of the Prophet, such as Mu'adh ibn Jabal, known for his knowledge of what was lawful and unlawful, and Tamim al-Dari, a devout ascetic who was formerly a Christian.
The Ascetic Forefathers
Al-Muhasibi drew heavily from the "People of the Bench" (Ahl al-Suffa), poor devotees commended by the Prophet. Among them were Abu Darda, who valued one hour of reflection over forty nights of prayer, and Abu Hurayra, to whom many ascetic and mystical traditions are attributed, including the famous hadith where God becomes the "ear by which he hears" and the "sight by which he sees."
His most frequently cited authority was the great ascetic and mystic Hasan al-Basri, who laid the foundation for the "science of hearts." Hasan taught scrupulous abstinence, the renunciation of all perishable things, and the necessity of aligning one's conduct with one's knowledge. He believed the true lover of God is intoxicated by love and awakened only by the vision of the Beloved.
Other major Sufi predecessors he cited include:
Sufyan al-Thawri: Founder of a school of Sufi tradition, he taught that the corruption of religious divines came from their inclination toward worldliness.
Ibrahim ibn Adham: A prince who renounced his throne for the life of a dervish, he taught that the mark of a true gnostic was a focus on good works and the praise of God.
Fudayl ibn 'Iyad: A former brigand turned saint, he taught that abandoning action for the sake of men's approval is a form of polytheism and that satisfaction (rida) is a higher spiritual stage than renunciation.
Shaqiq al-Balkhi: An ascetic who systematized the teachings of Ibrahim ibn Adham and extolled a life of complete acquiescence to the will of God.
Influential Contemporaries
Al-Muhasibi also cited many of his contemporaries. The most significant include:
Abu Sulayman al-Darani: Known as the "Sweet Basil of Hearts," he was distinguished for his knowledge of spiritual ills and the soul's temptations. He taught that the best way to approach God is to desire nothing in the two worlds besides Him alone.
Ahmad ibn 'Asim al-Antaki: Believed to be al-Muhasibi's teacher, his teachings on justice, sincerity, and love show a very close resemblance to al-Muhasibi's own developed doctrines. Antaki taught that love is marked by a taste for solitude and silence, as the lover becomes oblivious to all but the Beloved.
Bishr al-Hafi: A famous Baghdad ascetic who taught that hunger purifies the heart and that Sufism requires one's gnosis not to extinguish one's abstinence.
Dhu'l-Nun al-Misri: The great Egyptian mystic, he was the first in Egypt to teach about the "states" and "stations" of the spiritual path. He provided a long, detailed description of the saints as those whom God has invested with His radiance and entrusted with the treasures of the Invisible, commissioning them to heal those sick with separation from Him.
Non-Islamic Influences
Al-Muhasibi's work also reveals indirect and direct influences from outside Islam.
Jewish Sources: Besides the influence of early converts, he had access to a large and influential Jewish community in Baghdad. Talmudic and Midrashic writings, with their mystical doctrines, were studied by Arabic-speaking Jews, making their content accessible.
Christian Sources: His writings show a clear knowledge of the New Testament, including the Parable of the Sower, the Sermon on the Mount, and the epistles of St. Paul, suggesting he studied an Arabic translation of the Christian Scriptures. Furthermore, the teachings of early Syriac Christian mystics like Aphraates, Ephraim the Syrian, and Isaac of Nineveh contain many parallels to his own thought on purification, remembrance of death, and the stages of the spiritual way.
Hellenistic Sources: During his lifetime, the translation of Greek works into Arabic was flourishing. This included the so-called "Theology of Aristotle" (an adaptation of Plotinus's Enneads) and the works of Plato, which were made available and could have influenced his philosophical and mystical framework.
Al-Muhasibi's psychological theory is based upon the Quran but is more clearly defined, analyzing the self and the means by which it experiences the world, whether through the senses or through supernatural insight.
The Heart (Qalb)
For al-Muhasibi, the heart (qalb) is the essence of the self and the central organ of inner life. It is the locus of consciousness, where reality is perceived and interpreted. The heart constitutes the excellency of man, distinguishing him from all other created beings and enabling him to know and accept God's commands. It is the point of union between the body and soul. While the "members" are responsible for outward conduct, the heart is the source of "actions of the heart," which include motives, virtues, vices, and the reception of mystical "states" and "stations." It is the "beginning of all things," and its purity or corruption determines a man's salvation or perdition. The heart is like a mirror, which serves its purpose when it is brightly polished and free from defacement; if it is veiled by the "rust of sin" in this world, then the eyes will be veiled from the vision of God in the world to come.
The Duality of the Soul (Nafs)
A spiritual warfare is waged continuously within the heart between the higher soul (ruh) and the lower soul (nafs). The higher soul, or spirit, is the divine gift, one in nature with the Spirit of God, which strives toward the higher life. It is the abode of the hidden, inmost self, where man can become conscious of the Divine.
In conflict with it is the lower soul, the seat of appetites and passions. This is the "self" that is headstrong in its pursuit of what is pleasing to itself, always in opposition to what is pleasing to God. It is self-confident, self-assertive, disobedient, and untrustworthy. This rebellious self is like a wild animal that must be trained by constant discipline. Through this discipline, the soul is brought under obedience and gradually transformed. It becomes the "reproachful soul," wherein the higher nature gains the upper hand. When the victory is achieved and the struggle is over, it makes a complete submission to the will of its Lord and becomes the "soul at rest."
Reason ('Aql)
Al-Muhasibi defines reason ('aql) not as the intellect, but as a natural disposition or instinct bestowed by God upon His creatures. It is a light placed in the heart, a natural instinct that increases in power as knowledge is acquired. Reason is the means by which God speaks to the conscience of His servants, allowing them to discriminate between what is morally good and evil. Though it cannot be used to have perfect understanding of God, Who is infinite, reason enables the believer to understand the mystical sense of the unity of God, His power, and the nature of sin and its remedy. The man who is governed by reason is the most obedient to God.
Knowledge and Gnosis ('Ilm and Ma'rifa)
Al-Muhasibi distinguishes between different types of knowledge. There is outward, external knowledge concerning what is lawful and unlawful in this world. There is also inward, spiritual knowledge concerning the next world, which includes duties like worship, patience, contentment, and the realization of God's grace. This knowledge is acquired through reflection (tafakkur), consideration, and remembrance (dhikr). Reflection, he teaches, is one of the most important "works of the heart." For a single hour, it is better than service for a whole year.
By these processes, knowledge is acquired. Knowledge is like a lamp to the mind, and the eye that seeks help from the lamp is the reason. However, knowledge received from others or through reasoning only enables a man to know God indirectly. The highest knowledge is gnosis (ma'rifa), which is the greatest of God's gifts. This is an inner intuition or insight that deals with Reality, an intimate comprehension of Him that is not a product of the intellect but a supernatural process. This intuitive insight is latent in every man, as he is made in the image of God. If the eye of the heart is not dimmed by lust, it can contemplate the Divine Mystery. This gnosis is a pearl of great price, and those nearest to Him are those who excel in their knowledge of Him. This knowledge of God is closely connected with a knowledge of self.
Intention (Niya) and the Will
The very beginning of this ascetic preparation and the path toward gnosis is the intention (niya). It is one of the "gates" between God and man. The essential part of action is the intention, which must be free from all tinge of hypocrisy and self-interest; otherwise, the action is of no value. Al-Muhasibi defines intention as the desire of the servant that he should act in one particular way, directed either towards God or towards the world. A sincere intention is to seek for God's reward and to obey God in all you do. This effort of unification, by which the will is directed aright, is for man to prepare himself by freeing the soul from all obstacles to the Divine gift.
The asceticism al-Muhasibi teaches aims at the rectification of desires so the soul can find its proper relation to God. Man was created for unity with God, but this ideal has been unrealized because man, through his freedom of will, has become a bondslave of the "flesh" and the "self."
The Relationship Between Creator and Creature
Al-Muhasibi teaches that the first step toward purification is understanding that you are a servant under God's authority. Salvation is only possible through obedience to your Lord and Master. Humans were not created for idle pleasure but were placed in this world for trial and experience, to choose whether to obey or disobey God. This understanding is the beginning of purification, and knowledge of God's commands is the guide to salvation. The foundation of obedience is abstinence, which is based on godliness, which in turn is founded on self-examination.
The Nature of Sin
Sin, in al-Muhasibi's view, is a deliberate disobedience, a rebellion that appears in moral and intellectual forms. It is an action of the body's members or of the heart that is abhorrent to God. This rebellion frustrates the divine purpose for which man was created and causes a separation between the human and the Divine. The soul's enemies seek to hinder it from salvation and lead it to utter destruction.
The Three Enemies of the Soul
Al-Muhasibi identifies three primary enemies that the soul must overcome.
The Self: The first enemy is the one within: the lower self, dominated by concupiscence and the desire for its own satisfaction. This self seeks to make itself a god, renouncing obedience to its Lord. It clings to wealth for its own use, dislikes bodily weariness in the service of God, and craves for rest. Obedience to this self means destruction in this life and damnation in the next. The conquest of this insidious enemy is therefore essential for salvation.
The World: The second enemy is the one without: the world, which represents sinful humanity as a whole, a society that lives apart from God and is controlled by selfish aims. It is the world which tempts the self to intemperance and impurity, and seeks for vainglory and selfish display. Al-Muhasibi identifies the love of this world and its glory as the root of all evil and the chief of sins. He quotes a tradition that nothing is more abhorrent to God than the love of this world, and that the rich shall not enter the kingdom of heaven. Even the learned and the pious are not exempt from this enemy, as a learned man intoxicated by love of the world can make others fall away from God.
Iblis (The Adversary): The third enemy is Iblis, or Satan, who attacks the soul from both without and within. He is the enemy of God, the primal man, who fell through disobedience and pride. He is the prince of this world and assists its temptations with a host of myrmidons. Al-Muhasibi, quoting the Parable of the Sower, describes how Satan snatches the word from men's hearts. He uses many wiles, delusions, and false arguments to deceive men, display their good deeds as knowledge, and lead them to perdition. Though he cannot compel the will, he uses diabolic suggestion and presents evil in a way that is attractive to the lower soul. He is an enemy who must be known and fought with unceasing vigilance.
Temptation and Its Purpose
Temptation is not without purpose; it is permitted by God as a means of testing and trying the soul. Al-Muhasibi states that the beauties and delights of this world are a test from God for His servants, to see which of them is foremost in knowledge. These temptations must be resisted as part of the soul's service to God. Wilful entry into temptation can mean eternal damnation. One must avoid situations known to cause temptation, such as evil companionship, which can be as dangerous as the friend who is given to the observance of ritual prayer but whose friendship is displeasing to God.
Temptation is often a suggestion or a thought that occurs to the mind. The soul must repel it at once, for if it is not rejected, the self's natural propensity towards evil will find the suggestion sweet and respond to it. At this stage, the soul has fallen into sin, for the action of the will is under its own control. But when the soul is continually on guard to repel temptation, it can become a means of spiritual progress. Because of your fear of God and your refusal to adhere to this world, you were tested by its enticements; and since you remained obedient, you have attained to a pure heart.
Sin, according to al-Muhasibi, is a deliberate thwarting of the Divine purpose for which man was created. It leads to separation from God and spiritual death, producing heedlessness, forgetfulness of God's law, and hardness of heart. He notes that there is hardly a day in a man's life in which he is not guilty of some sin of commission or omission, and even the devout are often heedless, self-deluded sinners.
Mortal and Venial Sin
Al-Muhasibi distinguishes between two classes of sin. Mortal sin is a conscious transgression of God's will in a grave matter, which causes a separation from God. If not repented of, it leads to exclusion from His presence and into outer darkness. Venial sin concerns more trivial matters in which the faithful believer is constantly tempted. It involves guilt, but since it is entered upon by the conscious action of the will, if repented of and not persisted in, it does not cause separation from God. However, he holds that stubborn persistence in venial sin is itself a deadly sin, and no sin is venial if it is combined with contumacy.
The Capital Sins
Al-Muhasibi deals in considerable detail with certain capital sins which give rise to sin in its various forms. These sins of the heart include hypocrisy, pride, jealousy, greed, vanity, and hardness of heart.
Hypocrisy (riya'): This is one of the "secret sins" of the heart, where the inward intention does not correspond to the virtue of the outward act. It is the desire for something besides God—such as the praise of men—that defiles the action. No action will be accepted on the Day of Resurrection if it was done with the desire for anything save the glory of God. Al-Muhasibi illustrates this with several examples: the man who avoids the front line in battle for fear that men will say, "How cowardly he is," even though he has no taste for warfare; the man who gives alms grudgingly to avoid being blamed for lack of generosity; and the man who finds himself in company with a more devout companion and prays extra inclinations so he will not be accused of sloth.
Pride ('ujb): This capital sin is a form of self-esteem that gives the self the place which should be given to God, an inordinate love of self that leads to rebellion. It is a corruption found in many pious men, blinding them to their sins. Al-Muhasibi identifies several forms of pride: spiritual pride in one's actions or knowledge, where one conceits that good works have their origin in the self and not in God's grace; personal pride or vanity, which is self-satisfaction in one's beauty, strength, or intellect; pride of birth, where one feels superior because of one's forebears; and arrogance (kibr), which is a great defect in the sight of God, for greatness belongs by right only to Him.
Envy and Jealousy: Al-Muhasibi considers envy a capital sin which arises from greed and excessive desire. He distinguishes between commendable emulation, which is competing with another in what is good for God's sake, and sinful envy, which is jealousy involving the hatred of good for others and the desire that they should be deprived of it. Jealousy injures the jealous man more than those of whom he is jealous, for it cannot transfer their good qualities, and the injury he wishes to do to another often recoils upon himself.
Avarice: This is another great sin, where an avaricious man withholds from God what is due to Him or gives grudgingly. Al-Muhasibi relates a story of a man possessed of much wealth clinging to the Ka'ba and begging for forgiveness, whose sin—avarice—was declared by the Prophet to be greater than the mountains, the ocean, and the heavens.
Sins of the Tongue: He warns his readers to "Fear your tongue more than you fear wild beasts." He considers the tongue to be a wild beast, and most of what a man will find recorded against him on the Day of Judgment will be the evil in which his tongue delighted. These sins include anger, backbiting (ghiba), calumny (namima), blasphemy, ridicule, complaining, lying, and breaking promises.
Self-Delusion (ghirra): This sin is particularly dangerous because the sinner is hardly aware of it. It is to continue in sin and disobedience while claiming that one's hope is in His mercy. Men are deluded in different ways: some are deluded by their isolation, becoming pretentious in their solitude; others are deluded by their own knowledge, believing they are not punishable because they are theologians and leaders among the pious. A man is deluded who knows more about the things of God than himself, and no one is better fitted to give a decision on the canon law, yet he is who upholds the community in its faith, and if it were not for him religion would be destroyed.
All these sins, having their root in self-seeking and forgetfulness of what is due to God, mar the relationship of the creature to his Lord and hamper that relationship.
Man cannot be purified from sin except by the gift of God's grace and an attitude of mind that admits guilt and is ready to respond to the divine gift of forgiveness. This process begins with repentance and leads inevitably to a life of mortification and self-discipline.
The Path of Repentance
Repentance is the first station of pilgrims on the way to the Truth, a turning away from sin and a turning towards God. It is an ordinance from God, Who has promised mercy to those who repent. The process begins when God brings the recollection of Himself back to the heart of His servant, which rouses him to reflection. This leads to shame, which al-Muhasibi declares is an essential part of contrition. Shame is a precious and gracious thing that belongs exclusively to those whom God wills, and it is a mark of a noble nature. True shame is the fruit of a broken heart, arising from the sense of having done wrong against the All-Merciful Lord.
From shame and contrition comes reparation. Repentance is not perfect just by breaking down the contumacy of the heart; it requires atoning for any sin done to others and making restitution for what is due. The final, essential part of repentance is the determination in the heart not to return to that sin nor to do anything of the kind for ever. It is the abandonment of sin with the resolve to lead a new life.
The Greater Warfare: Mortification and Detachment
The resolve to lead a new life leads to the purgative life, the search for purification by means of mortification (mujahada) and self-discipline (riyada). This is what the Prophet called the "greater warfare," the struggle against oneself. Only by mortification is it possible to attain detachment, which is essential to the spiritual life. Detachment means cutting off all that distracts, hinders, and binds the soul in its struggle against sin and its striving towards God.
This requires detachment not only from material things but also from fellow-men. Solitude is essential for the seeker after God, as it provides an opportunity to apply the soul to divine things. But mortification also means detachment from every preoccupation, however good, because the heart is one and cannot be preoccupied with more than one thing. It is for you to direct your efforts towards God alone, for it is only the heart empty of all else which can be filled with the remembrance of God and devoted to His service only.
Methods of Mortification
Al-Muhasibi details the various forms that mortification takes:
Purification of Motive: This mortification addresses the very source of sin. It is the purification of the motive and intention, making the action sincere and single-minded, for the sake of God alone. This is the preventive of hypocrisy.
Mortification of Particular Sins: Specific sins require specific remedies. Pride is mortified by humility and the realization of one's own worthlessness. Jealousy and envy are mortified by accepting God's choice for others. Avarice is mortified by cutting off desire and remembering that God provides all that is needful. Sins of the tongue are mortified by silence and reflection.
General Mortification of the Self and Members: Unceasing mortification is a difficult thing. Man finds it difficult to bring down a bird from the firmament or a whale from the depths, but there is nothing so difficult as purifying the corruption of his own self. This requires constant control of the outward senses: the hearing must not listen to what is unprofitable, the eyes must not look on what is desirable but evil, and the tongue must be checked from speaking false and uncharitable words.
Abstinence (Wara') and Asceticism (Zuhd): The two chief means of mortification are abstinence and asceticism. Wara' is the scrupulous abstinence from all that is unlawful and all that is doubtful. Zuhd is the renunciation of this world, its goods, and its pleasures for the sake of God. It includes hunger, which breaks the power of the self; poverty, in which one follows the example of the Prophet; and preoccupation with the thought of God.
Inner Mortification and Self-Examination (Muhasaba): More difficult than outward mortification is the purification of the inner self—of feeling, thought, and will. This requires renouncing the inner evil before the outer good can have any benefit. This leads to self-examination, in order that sin may be prevented at its source and the intention mortified. He writes, "O my brothers, search out my inmost selves and the secrets of your breasts, and purify them from malice and hatred."
The Transformed Soul
In his book on Self-Examination, al-Muhasibi summarizes the effects of this process. The one who "died unto sin" wins the victory over the flesh and its lusts and becomes a new man. When the servant is thus changed, God opens to him the gate of understanding, whereby to advance in faith. He has his tongue under control, is detached from creatures, and trusts in God's care for him. He is merciful towards his fellow-men and seeks no revenge for wrongs done to him. He controls his regard, both of the outward eyes and the eye of the heart. He is content with what God has provided for him and is dependent upon no creature. This is the path, and God it was Who appointed it for the seeker.
The first stage for the seeker, the way of purgation through repentance and self-knowledge, is a preparation for the life in God. It is a process of pain and struggle that germinates the spiritual life. This "loss of self," in order that the true self may be found, is a rebirth into a new life where the passions have been subdued to serve the purposes of God.
The Role of Divine Grace
To those who have subdued themselves, al-Muhasibi believes that Divine grace will be revealed. This grace is a "light supernatural," a light of the hearts (nur al-qulub), by which the hearts of men are illuminated. Grace is not only a light but also a power that directs the will to correspond with the eternal Will of God, strengthens it against evil, and is the result of the contact of the spirit of man with the Divine Spirit. But to those who do not open their hearts to His grace, God gives freely of that which He has ready to give. A tradition from Abu Hurayra quoted by al-Muhasibi states that God declared, "O son of Adam, if thou dost draw near to Me by half a span, I will approach thee by a span... if thou dost come to Me walking, I will come to thee in haste."
The Key Virtues
The practice of the virtues is the means by which the seeker makes progress in the spiritual life.
Faith (Iman): The foundation of the spiritual life, faith is both a Divine gift and a human act. Al-Muhasibi describes three degrees of faith: the faith of the common folk, based upon authority; the faith of the theologians, based upon reasoning and demonstration; and the faith of the gnostics, which is the soul's vision of the Unseen, based upon the light of certainty which God has placed in the heart.
Dependence (Tawakkul) and Trust (Thiga): These virtues represent a state of the heart which relies upon God alone. The one who has this dependence is not the one who neglects the means, but the one whose heart is at rest, confident in God's provision. It is the virtue of the strong, who can remain steadfast in adversity.
Hope (Raja'): Hope is the longing of the heart for what is loved and its joy in the anticipation of attaining it. It is not mere wishful thinking, but must be accompanied by action. Its purpose is to save from despair, to enable sinners to repent, and to help men in remembering their past sins.
Holy Fear (Khawf): Fear is essential to the spiritual life. It is not simply the fear of punishment, but the awe and reverence of a servant in the presence of his Lord. Al-Muhasibi distinguishes several types of fear: the fear of God's chastisement, the fear of His attributes of majesty and glory, and the fear of being separated from Him—which is the fear of the lover who dreads the loss of the Beloved. The highest fear is mingled with love.
Godliness (Taqwa): This is the practical fruit of fear, consisting of obedience to God's commands and abstinence from what He has forbidden. It is the beginning of wisdom and the basis of true religion.
Charity: The love toward one's fellow creatures, it is the fruit of love to the Creator. It involves giving faithful counsel, forgiveness, overlooking faults, and putting the interests of others before one's own. The highest degree of charity is to summon men to the knowledge of God.
Justice: Justice is giving to each what is his due, both to God and to man. It is a necessary foundation for the spiritual life and a standard of righteousness.
Patience (Sabr): This virtue is essential for the spiritual struggle. It consists of three things: steadfastness in fulfilling religious obligations, steadfastness in abstaining from what is forbidden, and steadfastness in enduring affliction without complaint.
Gratitude (Shukr): Gratitude is the soul's recognition of a benefit and its joy therein, with the resolve to use the gift in a way that is pleasing to the Giver. Al-Muhasibi teaches that it is the key to the increase of God's blessings.
Mystical Stations and States
The virtues represent the "stations" (maqamat) of the mystic path. These are the stages which are acquired by the seeker's own striving and effort. Distinct from these are the "states" (ahwal), which are spiritual moods and graces—such as longing, intimacy, and joy—that descend from God upon the heart of the mystic without his being able to repel them when they come or to attract them when they go.
Prayer, to al-Muhasibi, is the means by which the servant holds communion with his Lord, the key to Paradise, and the noblest of all acts of devotion. He teaches that through prayer, the seeker finds purification, illumination, and finally, union with God.
Forms of Prayer
Al-Muhasibi discusses both congregational and personal prayer. Congregational prayer is more meritorious than that offered in private, as it provides a remedy for the heedless, an incentive to the lazy, and protection for the individual from the assaults of Satan. Personal prayer, especially supererogatory prayer offered during the night, is also of great value. Night is the best time for such prayer because it is a time of quiet, when the heart can be free from the distractions of the world and the servant can be alone with his Lord.
The Essential Ingredient: Presence of the Heart
For any prayer to be effective, the essential condition is the "presence of the heart." The mere outward form of prayer is of little account if the heart is not present. True prayer requires that the heart be conscious of the one being addressed, filled with awe and reverence, and humble before His majesty. Al-Muhasibi warns that a prayer offered with a heedless heart is an insult to God. The worshipper must be single-minded, with his thoughts fixed upon God, and free from all worldly anxieties and distractions. When the heart is truly present, the servant finds joy and satisfaction in prayer, preferring it to all else.
The Inner Acts of Devotion
Beyond the ritual, al-Muhasibi emphasizes inner acts of devotion which are also forms of prayer.
Meditation (Fikr): This is a "work of the heart" and one of the highest forms of worship. It is the means by which wisdom is acquired. Through meditation on the blessings of God, the heart is filled with gratitude; by meditating on God's power and majesty, it is filled with awe; and by meditating on His promises, it is filled with hope.
Affective Prayer: This is the prayer that engages the emotions. It is the prayer of supplication, in which the servant turns to God with longing, expressing the needs of his heart. This type of prayer is acceptable to God, Who loves to be asked and is ready to answer the one who calls upon Him.
Recollection (Dhikr): This is the constant remembrance of God, which he calls the "food of the soul" and the "polish of the heart." Recollection may be vocal, with the tongue, or silent, within the heart. The highest form of recollection is that which takes possession of the heart and banishes from it all that is other than God. It is the means by which the servant draws near to God and the gate to contemplation.
Aids to Devotion: Solitude and Silence
To foster a life of prayer, al-Muhasibi counsels the use of solitude and silence. Solitude is valuable because it removes the soul from worldly distractions and temptations, allowing the heart to concentrate on God alone. Silence is a safeguard for the servant, protecting him from the many sins of the tongue. It fosters the habit of inward recollection and allows him to hear the voice of God speaking to his heart.
The Goal: Contemplative Prayer
The ultimate goal of the devotional life is contemplative prayer. This is a state which is the fruit of recollection, where the servant is "alone with the Alone." Having passed beyond vocal prayer, meditation, and supplication, the heart enters into silent communion with God. In this state, the servant is wholly absorbed in the contemplation of the Divine Majesty, lost in adoration, and oblivious to all else. This is the prayer of the gnostics and the saints, and the highest degree of worship to which a servant can attain.
The third stage of the mystic path, following Purgation and Illumination, is the Unitive Way. This is the ultimate goal of the mystic, in which the soul, made pure and enlightened by grace, seeks union with God. In this stage, the soul becomes what it beholds, and seeing God, it partakes of the Divine nature.
Gnosis: The Knowledge of God
The first step on the Unitive Way is gnosis (ma'rifa), the direct, intuitive knowledge of God. It is not knowledge acquired by reason, but a divine gift, a light which God casts into the heart. By this light, the soul is able to see things as they really are and to know God Himself. The gnostic ('arif) is one who knows God, His promises, and His threats, and whose state corresponds to his knowledge. This gnosis is a secret of God, revealed only to His saints, and it is the means by which they are brought into His presence.
Fellowship: Intimacy with God
Gnosis leads to fellowship (uns), a state of intimacy and joy in the presence of God. The soul feels at home with God and finds all its delight in communion with Him. The heart is weaned from all created things and is occupied only with its Lord. In this state, the soul is filled with peace and security, freed from all fear and anxiety, for it knows that it is in the care of the Beloved.
Satisfaction: Surrender to the Divine Will
A higher state still is satisfaction (rida), which al-Muhasibi calls the "gateway of God" and the "paradise of this world." It is the complete acquiescence of the human will to the Divine Will. The soul is satisfied with whatever God decrees, whether it brings pleasure or pain, for it knows that His choice is always the best. In this state, the heart ceases to make choices for itself, for its own will has been merged into the Will of God. This is the greatest of the gates that lead to God, and the soul that has entered it has found rest.
Love: The Supreme Station
Love (mahabba) is the supreme "station" and the ultimate cause of the mystic's ascent to God. It is a divine grace, a gift which God bestows upon those whom He chooses. Al-Muhasibi describes the signs of true love for God: preferring what God loves over one's own desires, constant remembrance of Him, preferring solitude for communion with Him, finding sorrow in anything that serves as a distraction from Him, and feeling grief at every moment spent without the recollection of the Beloved. Love is a fire that consumes all that is not God, and it transforms the lover, who takes on the attributes of the Beloved.
The Beatific Vision: The Ultimate Goal
The final goal and the supreme reward of the mystic is the Beatific Vision, the vision of God Himself. It is the consummation of both gnosis and love. In this world, it is an inward vision of the heart, by which the saints behold the Divine Majesty and are rapt in adoration. In the next life, it will be a direct, face-to-face vision, unveiled and everlasting. This vision is the supreme joy of Paradise, in comparison with which all other delights are as nothing.
The Life of the Saints in God
Those who have attained to this state live a life that is hidden in God. Their own will has been annihilated and replaced by the Divine Will. It is no longer they who live, but God Who lives and acts in them. They are the friends of God, living in eternal communion with Him, their hearts for ever contemplating His beauty and their wills for ever conformed to His.