Pashupata Shaivism

10:22 PM | BY ZeroDivide EDIT
Pashupatas disapprove of the Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything cannot be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognize that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pashupatas, spirits possess the attributes of the Supreme Deity when they become liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.[10] In this system the cessation of pain is of two kinds, impersonal and personal. Impersonal consists of the absolute cessation of all pains, whereas the personal consists of development of visual and active powers like swiftness of thought, assuming forms at will etc. The Lord is held to be the possessor of infinite, visual, and active powers.[11]
Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā divides the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient is unconscious and thus dependent on the conscious. The insentient is further divided into effects and causes. The effects are of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. . The causes are of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes are held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. The sentient spirit, which is subject to transmigration is of two kinds, the appetent and nonappetent. The appetent is the spirit associated with an organism and sense organs, whereas the non-appetent is the spirit without them.[12]
Union in the Pashupata system is a conjunction of the soul with God through the intellect. It is achieved in two ways, action and cessation of action. Union through action consists of pious muttering, meditation etc. and union through cessation of action occurs through consciousness.[12]

Differences with other schools of Indian philosophy[edit]

Cessation of suffering in other systems like Sankhya occurs through the mere termination of miseries, but in Pashupata school it is the attainment of supremacy or of divine perfections. In other philosophies, the created world is that which has come into existence, but in this system it is eternal. In other schools of thought, birth in paradise involves a return to cycle of rebirth, but in this system it results in nearness to the Supreme Being.[13]

Rituals[edit]

Rituals and spiritual practices were done to acquire merit or puṇya. They were divided into primary and secondary rituals, where primary rituals were the direct means of acquiring merit. Primary rituals included acts of piety and various postures. The acts of piety were bathing thrice a day, lying upon sand and worship with oblations of laughter, song, dance, sacred muttering etc. Postures involved absurd actions such as, snoring or showing signs of being asleep while awake, limping, wooing or gestures of an inamorato on seeing a young and pretty woman, talking nonsensically etc. Secondary rituals involved bearing marks of purity after bathing.[14]

Beliefs and practices[edit]

Lakulisa is credited with authorship of the Pancharthavidya, in which devotees are instructed to "bathe thrice a day" and "lie on the dust or ashes". This "Pasupata Vow" is also described in the Atharvasiras Upanishad.[15]
The Pasupatas worshiped Lord Shiva as God Almighty. They would bathe their body three times a day in sand, lie in ashes, sing bhajans of Shiva.[16]
Laughing was also an important Pasupata practice, as was physically shaking and meditation.[17]
They call the union (Moksha) with Shiva, "Rudrasajujya."[18]

Five major principles[edit]

According to Govind Chandra Pande,[19] there are give major principles which the Pasupata members adhere to:
  1. creature ("Karya")
  2. creator ("Karana")
  3. esoteric worship ("Yoga")
  4. ritual ("Vishi")
  5. salvation ("dukhanta")

Sects[edit]

The Pasupatas are known to have had sects within the Pasupata sect. For example, the Lakulins are said to be a sub-sect. The Tripurantaka sect are also said to be the same. Their scripture is the Cintra prashasti.[20] They were found in Gujarat up to the Chalukya era.[20] The Lalikesa Sasana were another sect.[21]
It is said that "Lakulisa" became the name of the Pasupata sects at least after the 11th century CE.[22] The Lakulin sect is also known by the names "Lakulasamaya", "Lakula", "Lanjana", "Laguda", "Langala", "Nakula", "Vakula."[23]

Beliefs and practices[edit]

Lakulisa is credited with authorship of the Pancharthavidya, in which devotees are instructed to "bathe thrice a day" and "lie on the dust or ashes". This "Pasupata Vow" is also described in the Atharvasiras Upanishad.[15]
The Pasupatas worshiped Lord Shiva as God Almighty. They would bathe their body three times a day in sand, lie in ashes, sing bhajans of Shiva.[16]
Laughing was also an important Pasupata practice, as was physically shaking and meditation.[17]
They call the union (Moksha) with Shiva, "Rudrasajujya."[18]

Pasupatism historically practiced[edit]

Temples with the carvings of Lakulisa are found in western regions of India as that is where it originated although it is also found in the east as far as Orissa, south to Tamil Nadu and north to Kashmir.

Western India[edit]

The practice of course began in western India and so spread amongst areas of the west. many images of Lakula have been found in areas such as Rajasthan.[24] Fergusson assigned temples from Rajasthan down to Andhra as belonging to the Pasupatas.[25] The region around Mt. Abu was the principal place of Pasuapta activities.[26]
Along with other forms of Shiva, there is a painting of Lakulisa in an Ellora cave of Maharashtra.[27]

Northern India[edit]

"The form of Saivism in Kashmir during the early period was of the Pasupata sect. According to a tradition recorded in the Mahabharata, the doctrine of Pasupata was first preached by Siva Srikantha. It is interesting to note that Siva Srikantha was regarded in the Valley to as the promulgator or Sivagama or Agamanta Saivism which included the system of the Pasupata."[28]

Southern India[edit]

In Tamil Nadu, it is known to have existed in the modern-day district of Tiruvottiyur, and in Kashmir in Payar, where there are Lakulisa figures found.[29] In Tamil Nadu, it also existed in Tanjore and Nagapattnam.[30]
According to the findings of the Archaeological Survey of India, Bijjaladeva of the Chalukyan Empire of Southern India and parts of Northern India, donated a gift in the service to God. The gift was made after washing the feet of Divyasakti-Panditadeva, a Lakulin.

Nepal[edit]

As the Hinduism Today article reports:
"A seventh-century Chinese traveler, Hiuen Tsiang, wrote that 10,000 Pashupatas then occupied Varanasi. The Pashupata tradition spread to Nepal in the eighth century, where the now famous Pashupatinath Temple became a prime pilgrimage center and remains so to this day. At its medieval zenith, Pashupatism blanketed Western, Northwestern and Southeastern India, where it received royal patronage. In the fifteenth century, it retreated to its strongholds of Gujarat, Nepal and the Himalayan hills" (March 1994, "Pashupata Saivism")
It is believed by some scholars that they may have been absorbed into other sects such as the Kanpatha Yoga.[31]
To King Ishttanga's rule (915-930 CE) is attributed the building of a Pasupata temple.[32]
There is a Nakuleshvara Temple complex in Kalighata, West Bengal.[33]

Indonesia[edit]

It has been theorized by a few scholars such as Dale Hoiberg and Indu Ramchandani state that the sect existed in Cambodia and Java, Indonesia.[34]

Reference in scriptures[edit]

The Pasupata beliefs are summarized in the Pasaputa Sutra. This text was rediscovered in 1930 and is attributed to Lakulisa himself.[35]Bhanmdarkar attributes the Atharva-Sirasto the Pasupatas.[36] Also, in the text, their vow is recorded.[37]
The Mahabharata claimed that he was a son of Lord Brahma and taught people the Pasupata system.[38] In the Mahabharata, Srikantha (or Lakulisa) claims that the Pasupata system is a son of Lord Brahma when a form of Shiva emerged from Lord Brahma's eyebrow (MBh (B), 12, 349-67) [39]
The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha of Vaishnava saint Madhavacarya wrote in the text, the philosophical system of Lakulin. Kaundinya's or Rashikara's Pancharta Bhasya discusses this sect.[40] The Gana-karika of Bhasarvajna too discusses this school in detail.[41] The Pasupata system is mentioned in the Vayuviha Samhita.[42]
Some people including compilers of the Vayu and Linga puranas to be a corresponding system of the Pancharatna.[43]

Reference in scriptures[edit]

The Pasupata beliefs are summarized in the Pasaputa Sutra. This text was rediscovered in 1930 and is attributed to Lakulisa himself.[44]Bhanmdarkar attributes the Atharva-Sirasto the Pasupatas.[45] Also, in the text, their vow is recorded.[46]
The Mahabharata claimed that he was a son of Lord Brahma and taught people the Pasupata system.[47] In the Mahabharata, Srikantha (or Lakulisa) claims that the Pasupata system is a son of Lord Brahma when a form of Shiva emerged from Lord Brahma's eyebrow (MBh (B), 12, 349-67) [48]
The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha of Vaishnava saint Madhavacarya wrote in the text, the philosophical system of Lakulin. Kaundinya's or Rashikara's Pancharta Bhasya discusses this sect.[49] The Gana-karika of Bhasarvajna too discusses this school in detail.[50] The Pasupata system is mentioned in the Vayuviha Samhita.[51]
Some people including compilers of the Vayu and Linga puranas to be a corresponding system of the Pancharatna

Rishabha: Combine Representative of Vhisnu, Shiva, Krisna and Thirthankaras: The Destroyer of Karma

4:34 PM | BY ZeroDivide EDIT
From a series of Vishnu Avataras- Rishabha
Rishabha, also known as Adinatha, is the traditional founder of Jainism. He was the first of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras or "ford-makers", teachers who established the Jain teachings. According to legends, he belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty of ancient Ayodhya.[2] His son was believed to be the first chakravartin. Rishabha is also known as Rikhava and is sometimes called Rishabha of Kosala.

Historicity[edit]

Jains traditionally trace their history through a succession of twenty-four propagators of faith known as tīrthaṅkara. These tīrthaṅkara have legendary accounts of their life.[citation needed] Parshvanatha, is the earliest tīrthaṅkara who can be reliably dated; he lived in the 9th century BCE.[3][4] Tradition says that Mahāvīra's parents followed his teachings. However, the current knowledge about the history of India is not enough to say whether Pārśva decisively founded the Jain religion or not.[5] In this regard, Hermann Jacobi, a noted indologist, writes:[6]
There is nothing to prove that Parshva was the founder of Jainism. Jain tradition is unanimous in making Rishabha, the first Tirthankara, as its founder and there may be something historical in the tradition which makes him the first Tirthankara.
Some contemporary historians are of the opinion that there exists some link between Rishabha and the Indus Valley Civilization.[6][7][8] However, these mentions of Rishabha in the Vedas have multiple interpretations. There is no conclusive evidence of him founding Jainism in Vedic literature. Rishabha was, however, worshiped as the first tīrthaṅkara and the founder of Jainism from the 4th or 3rd century BCE.[9]

In Literature[edit]

There is mention of Rishabha in Hindu scriptures, including the Purana. The Bhagavata Purana states that
The eighth incarnation was King Rishabha, son of King Nabhi and his wife Merudevi. In this incarnation the Lord showed the path of perfection, which is followed by those who have fully controlled their senses and who are honored by all orders of life.
—Srimad Bhagavatam 1.3.13
In the Skanda Purana (chapter 37) it is stated that "Rishabha was the son of Nabhi, and Rishabha had a son named Bharata, and after the name of this Bharata, this country is known as Bharata-varsha."[10]
Statue of R̥ṣabha at LACMA
Rishabha also finds mention in Buddhist literature. It speaks of several jaina tirthankara which includes Rishabha along with Padmaprabha, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta, Vimalnatha, Dharmanatha and Neminatha. A Buddhist scripture named Dharmottarapradipa mentions Rishabha as an Apta (Tirthankara).[11]
The Ādi purāṇa, a 10th-century Kannada language text by the poet Adikavi Pampa (fl. 941 CE), written in Champu style, a mix of prose and verse and spread over sixteen cantos, deals with the ten lives of Rishabha and his two sons.[12][13] The life of Rishabha is also given in Mahapurana of Jinasena.[14]

Legends[edit]

Rishabha was born to Nabhi Raja and Marudevi at Ayodhya before human civilization was much developed.[15] People were primitive and illiterate and he taught them agriculture, tending of animals, cooking, poetry, painting, sculpture and similar arts.[2][16] He introduced karma-bhumi (the age of action).[17] The institution of marriage, ceremony of cremating the dead and festivals in honour of gods like Indra and Naga came into existence.[18][2] He introduced a total of seventy-two sciences which includes arithmetic, the plastic and visual arts, the art of lovemaking, singing and dancing.[18] He taught people how to extract sugarcane juice. The name for the Ikshvaku dynasty comes from the word ikhsu (sugarcane) because of this event.[19] His kingdom was kind and gentle[18] and he is credited with transforming a tribal society into an orderly one.[20] Like any Tirthankara and other legendary figures of Indian history (who were great warriors), he too was a great warrior with great strength and body. However, he never needed to show his warrior aspect.[18] Rishabha is known for advocating non-violence.[18] He was one of the greatest initiators of human progress.[2]
Rishabha had two wives. One of them was Sunanda and the other is given different names, Yasaswati, Nanda and Sumangala, in different texts. He had one hundred sons and two daughters.[21] Among these, Sunanda was the mother of Bahubali and Sundari whereas Sumangala was the mother of Bharat and Brahmi.[22] Bharata, Rishabha's eldest son, was a chakravartin who later attained moksha and hence is worshipped as a siddha by the Jains. India was named 'Bhāratavarsha' or Bhārata after him.[2][23]
Rishabha gave his kingdom to his two sons Bharata and Bahubali. Bharata received the northern half of his kingdom with Ayodhya as the capital whereas Bahubali received the southern half with the city Podanapur.[24] He then became an ascetic. His aim was to cause less harm to others and keep no possessions.[20] Some of the scriptures mention that a nymph named Nilanjana was sent by Indra for the purpose of awakening Rishabha to renounce the world.[25] Nilanjana was one of the favorite dancers of Rishabha. Indra staged the dancer's sudden death in order to awaken Rishabha and make him preach Jainism.[26] The sudden fatal death of Nilanjana gave Rishabha a desire for renunciation.[27] Rishabha was the first human to attain enlightenment. He traveled far and wide and preached Jainism.[28] He had his first alms as an ascetic in the town of Hastinapur. Jains celebrate this event on the third day of bright fortnight of the month Vaishaka.[29] While traveling, he came across a mountain named Ashtapada, which is famously known as mount Kailash. Gods created a divine preaching hall known as samavasarana at this mountain for Rishabha.[28] He attained liberation on Mount Kailasa at the age of 84 lakh purva (5,927,040,000,000,000; where one purva equals 84*8,400,000).[17] His preachings were recorded in fourteen scriptures known as Purva.[30]

Iconography[edit]

17th-century painting showing Rsabha's royal consecration from the Pancakalyanaka of Rsabha series
Rishabha is usually depicted in lotus position or kayotsarga, a standing posture of meditation. The distinguishing mark of Rishabha is his long locks of hair which fall on his shoulders and an image of a bull in his sculptures.[31] His paintings usually depict various important events of his legend. Some of these include his marriage and the Hindu god Indra marking his forehead. He is shown presenting a bowl to his followers and teaching them the art of pottery, painting a house, weaving textile. The visit of his mother Marudevi is also shown extensively in painting.[32]

Cook Islands[edit]

Jainism and the history of Lord Adinath(Rishabhadev) is very important to the people that live on the Cook Islands. A commerative coin of Lord Adinath was recently released by the Cook Islands.[33][34]

In Hinduism, Rishabha is the eighth Avatar of Vishnu of the twenty-two incarnations listed in the Bhagavata Purana.[1]
Rishabha Rishi is also mentioned in the Markandeya, Vayu, Brahmanda, Skanda, and Vishnu Puranas.
His most important lesson he taught mankind was that material possessions cause envy and unhappiness.

Birth[edit]

He appeared in the womb of Marudevi, the wife of King Nabhi. The King underwent many severe austerities and penance to please Vishnu to get a son like Vishnu. Vishnu accepted his plea and thus appeared as Rishabha, son of King Nabhi and Marudevi.

Children[edit]

He followed the orders of his guru and accepted a wife named Jayanti, who had been given to him by the king of heaven, Indra. He begot a hundred sons by Jayanti.
Of his hundred sons, the eldest was known as Jadabharata, who became a Chakravartin. Since his reign, the Indian subcontinent has been called Bharatavarsa. Rsabha's other sons were headed by Kusavarta, Ilavarta, Brahmavarta, Malaya, Ketu, Bhadrasena, Indrasprk, Vidarbha and Kikata. There were also other sons named Kavi, Hari, Antariksha, Prabuddha, Pippalayan, Avirhotra, Drumil, Chamas and Karabhajan. Instead of ruling the kingdom, these nine became mendicant preachers, following the religious precepts of the Bhagavata Purana. It is written that they were "Shramana vatarashana", orShramanas clothed in the wind. Their characteristics and activities are described in the Eleventh Canto of the Bhagavata Purana during the talks between Vasudeva and Narada at Kuruksetra. To teach the general populace, Rishabha performed many sacrifices and taught his sons how to rule the citizens.[2] Thus Rishabha was an ideal father, who gave apt instructions to his sons. The instructions of Rishabha to his sons are present in Canto 5, Chapter 5 of the Bhagavata Purana.

Relation to Shiva[edit]

Several scholars have connected Rishabha to Lord Shiva, especially through the Indus Valley Civilization's iconography such as the meditative pose of a yogin who is also called by many as the Pasupatiform of Lord Shiva. Lord Shiva is also known as Gopati-Rishabha.
Many epithets that have been applied to Lord Shiva have also been applied to Rishabha; these include Aghora, Ishana, Sadyojata, and Vamadeva.[3] The influence of Lord Shiva is clearly noticeable on theMahapurana, in as much as the Puranakara has called Lord Rishabha as tripurari, trilochana, trinetra, tryambaka, and tryakshna.
In one legend, there is a Saint Rishabh who came to Bhadrayuva unexpectedly, and taught him a great mantra called the Shivakavacha.[4]
In the "Brahmottara-candam" section of the Brahma Purana, the narrator Suta describes many matters relating to Shaivism and in the 16th portion, there is a story about Bhadrabahu receiving instructions in a mantra from Rishabha yogi.[5]
The Linga Purana mentions that in every kali yuga, Lord Shiva has incarnated, and that in one kali yuga he was a Yogeshwara (one of His 28 incarnations) named Rishabha.[6]

Relation to Vishnu[edit]

According to some Vaishnava scriptures, Rishabha is an avatara of Vishnu. The Bhagavata Purana is the first to make this claim.
This claim is also confirmed by Jain Acharya Jinasena who claims in his Adipurana that Rishabha is indeed Krishna and Vishnu.[7] Jainism may have made the claim of Rishabha being Krishna and Vishnu before Vaishnavism, as the composition of the Bhagavata Purana is some time between the first part of the 6th century to the 9th century.[8]

Relation to Jainism[edit]

Main article: Rishabha
Jains regards Rishabha as the first Tirthankara.
Jain are in conformity with the Vedas in reference to both the Vedas' and Jainism' acceptance of the 24 Tirthankaras. Of Rishabha, as a Tirthankara, is written:
But Risabha went on, unperturbed by anything till he became sin-free like a conch that takes no black dot, without obstruction ... which is the epithet of the First World-teacher, may become the destroyer of enemies
—Rig Veda, X.166
It claims that Rishabha was the first human to achieve Moksha in the present age, the release from rebirths. As per Jainism there is no beginning or end for souls. So Rishabha is the first Thirthankara for this cycle which ended with Mahavira. There were Thirthankaras before and will be after Rishabha.
Jainism
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Total population
about 5 million
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Rishabha
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In Jainism, a Tīrthaṅkara is a person who has conquered samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth, and can provide a bridge for Jains to follow them fromsamsara to moksha (liberation).[1][2]:126 According to scripture, that which helps one to cross samsara is a tīrtha ("ford") and a person who fills that role is atīrthaṅkara ("ford-maker").[3]
Twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. The 24th tīrthaṅkara of the current cycle was Mahavira.[2]

Overview[edit]

Rishabhadeva (left) and Mahavira (right)
The tīrthaṅkaras' teachings form the basis for the Jain canons. The inner knowledge of tīrthaṅkara is believed to be perfect and identical in every respect and their teachings do not contradict one another. However, the degree of elaboration varies according to the spiritual advancement and purity of the society during their period of leadership. The higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind of the society, the lower the elaboration required.
While tīrthaṅkaras are documented and revered by Jains, their grace is said to be available to living beings, regardless of religious orientation.[4]
Tīrthaṅkaras dwell exclusively within the realm of their Soul, and are entirely free of kashayas, inner passions, and personal desires. As a result of this, unlimited siddhis, or spiritual powers, are readily available to them – which they use exclusively for the spiritual elevation of living beings. Through darśana, divine vision, and deshna, divine speech, they grant their own state of kevalajñana, and moksha, final liberation to anyone seeking it sincerely.
At the end of his human life-span, a tīrthaṅkara achieves siddha status, ending the cycle of infinite births and deaths.
Jainism postulates that time has no beginning or end. It moves like the wheel of a cart. Jains believe that exactly twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in each half-cycle of time in this part of the universe. The first tīrthaṅkara was Rishabha, who is credited for formulating and organising humans to live in a society harmoniously. The 24th and last tīrthaṅkara was Mahavira (599-527 BC).

Particular tīrthaṅkaras[edit]

Tīrthaṅkara images are usually seated with their legs crossed in front, the toes of one foot resting close upon the knee of the other, and the right hand lying over the left in the lap.[1]
In Jain tradition the tīrthaṅkaras were royal in their final lives, and Jain traditions record details of their previous lives, usually as royalty. Their clan and families are also among those recorded in very early, or legendary, Hindu history. All but two of the Jains are ascribed to the Ikshvaku dynasty. Munisuvrata, the twentieth, and Neminatha, the twenty-second, were of the Harivamsa. Jain canons state that Rishabha, the first tīrthaṅkara, founded the Ikshvaku dynasty.
Twenty tīrthaṅkaras achieved “siddha” status on Shikharji. Rishabha attained nirvana on Mount Kailash, Vasupujya at Champapuri in North Bengal, Neminatha onGirnar in Gujarat, and Mahavira, the last tīrthaṅkara, at Pawapuri, near modern Patna. Twenty-one of the tīrthaṅkaras are said to have attained moksha in thekayotsarga “standing meditation” posture, while Rishabha, Neminatha and Mahavira are said to have attained moksha in the lotus position.

List of the 24 tīrthaṅkaras[edit]

The 24 tīrthaṅkaras
The 23rd tirthankara, Parshvanatha, at the Adinatha Temple in Ranakpur,Rajasthan.
In chronological order, the names, emblems and colours of the 24 tīrthaṅkaras of this age are mentioned below:[1]
NumberNameEmblemColour
1RishabhaBullGolden
2AjitanathaElephantGolden
3SambhavanathaHorseGolden
4AbhinandananathaApeGolden
5SumatinathaHeronGolden
6PadmaprabhaLotusRed
7SuparshvanathaSwastikaGolden
8ChandraprabhaMoonWhite
9PushpadantaDolphin or Makara (sea dragon)White
10ShitalanathaShrivatsaGolden
11ShreyanasanathaRhinocerosGolden
12VasupujyaBuffaloRed
13VimalanathaBoarGolden
14AnantanathaHawk or ram or bearGolden
15DharmanathaThunderboltGolden
16ShantinathaAntelope or deerGolden
17KunthunathaGoatGolden
18AranathaNandyavarta or fishGolden
19MallinathaWater jugBlue
20MunisuvrataTortoiseBlack
21NaminathaBlue lotusGolden
22NeminathaConch shellBlack
23ParshvanathaSnakeGreen
24MahaviraLionGolden

Future tīrthaṅkaras[edit]

In every time-cycle, 48 Tirthankar are born in two batches of 24. In the current time cycle, the first 24 are the ones listed above. The names of the next 24 are as follows. (Mentioned in the parentheses is (one of) the soul's previous human births.)
  1. Padmanabh (King Shrenik)
  2. Surdev (Mahavir's uncle Suparshva)
  3. Suparshva (King Kaunik's son king Udayi)
  4. Svamprabh (The ascetic Pottil)
  5. Sarvanubhuti (Shravak Dridhayadha)
  6. Devshruti (Kartik's shreshti)
  7. Udaynath (Shravak Shamkha)
  8. Pedhalputra (Shravak Anand)
  9. Pottil (Shravak Sunand)
  10. Shatak (Sharavak Shatak)
  11. Munivrat (Krishna's mother Devaki)
  12. Amam (Lord Krishna)
  13. Shrinishkashay (Satyaki Rudhra)
  14. Nishpulak (Krishna's brother Balbhadra also known as Balrama)
  15. Nirmam (Shravika Sulsa)
  16. Chitragupt (Krishna's brother's mother Rohini)
  17. Samadhinath (Revati Gathapatni)
  18. Samvarnath (Sharavak Shattilak)
  19. Yashodhar (Rishi Dwipayan)
  20. Vijay (Arjuna of Mahabharata)
  21. Malyadev (Nirgranthaputra or Mallanarada)
  22. Devachandra (Shravak Ambadh)
  23. Anantvirya (Shravak Amar)
  24. Shribhadrakar (Shanak)

See also[edit]

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Jain metaphysics is based on seven (sometimes nine, with subcategories) truths or fundamental principles also known as tattva or navatattva, which are an attempt to explain the nature and solution to the human predicament. The first two are the two ontological categories of the soul jīva and the non-soul ajīva, namely the axiom that they exist. The third truth is that through the interaction, called yoga, between the two substances, soul and non-soul, karmic matter flows into the soul (āsrava), clings to it, becomes converted into karma and the fourth truth acts as a factor of bondage (bandha), restricting the manifestation of the consciousness intrinsic to it. The fifth truth states that a stoppage (saṃvara) of new karma is possible through asceticism through practice of right conduct, faith and knowledge. An intensification of asceticism burns up the existing karma – this sixth truth is expressed by the word nirjarā. The final truth is that when the soul is freed from the influence of karma, it reaches the goal of Jaina teaching, which is liberation or mokṣa.[1] Some authors add two additional categories: the meritorious and demeritorious acts related to karma (puṇya and pāpa). These nine categories of cardinal truth, called navatattva, form the basis of entire Jain metaphysics. The knowledge of these reals is essential for the liberation of the soul.

Jīva[edit]

Jainism believes that the souls (jīva) exist as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. Jīva is characterised by cetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception).[2] Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul.[3]

Ajīva[edit]

Ajīva are the five non-living substances that make up the universe along with the jīva. They are:
  • Pudgala (Matter) –Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter or ultimate particles.[4] Paramānu or ultimate particles are considered the basic building block of all matter. One of the qualities of the Paramānu and Pudgala is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created nor destroyed.
  • Dharma-tattva (Medium of Motion) and Adharma-tattva (Medium of rest) – They are also known as Dharmāstikāya and Adharmāstikāya. They are unique to Jain thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharma-tattva and adharma-tattva are by themselves not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and without adharmāstikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
  • Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.
  • Kāla (Time) – Time is a real entity according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through time. In Jainism, the time is likened to a wheel with twelve spokes divided into descending and ascending halves with six stages, each of immense duration estimated at billions ofsagaropama or ocean years.[5] According to Jains, sorrow increases at each progressive descending stage and happiness and bliss increase in each progressive ascending stage.

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