Quakers (or Friends, as they refer to themselves) are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers,[2][3] a doctrine derived from a verse in the New Testament, 1 Peter 2:9.[4] Most Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.[5]
Today, around 89% of Friends worldwide practice programmed worship[6]—that is, worship with singing and a prepared message from the Bible, often coordinated by a pastor. Around 11% of Friends[6] practice waiting worship(also known as unprogrammed worship)—that is worship where the order of service is not planned in advance, which is predominantly silent, and which may include unprepared vocal ministry from anyone present, so long as it is credible to those assembled that the speaker is moved to speak by God. Some meetings of both styles haveRecorded Ministers in their meetings— these are Friends who have been recognised for their gift of vocal ministry.[7]
The first Quakers, known as the Valiant Sixty, lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from theLegatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, breaking away from the established Church of England. These Quakers attempted to convert others to their understanding of Christianity, traveling both throughout Great Britain and overseas, preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ. Some of the early Quaker ministers were women.[8]They based their message on the religious belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself," stressing the importance of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, and a direct religious belief in the universal priesthood of all believers.[9] They emphasized a personal and direct religious experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible.[10] Quakers focused their private life on developing behavior and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God.[11]
In the past, Quakers were known for their use of thou as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism – the opposition to alcohol. Some Quakers have founded banks and financial institutions including Barclays, Lloyds, and Friends Provident; manufacturing companies including Clarks, Cadbury, Rowntree, and Fry's; and philanthropic efforts, including abolition, prison reform, and social justice projects.
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Religious Society of Friends
Beginnings in England[edit]
During and after the English Civil War (1642–1651) many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied by the teachings of the Church of England and non-conformists. He had a revelation that there is one, even, Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition,[12] and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of an ordained clergy. He had a vision on Pendle Hill inLancashire, England, in which he believed that "the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered".[12]Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands,[13] and Barbados[14] preaching and teaching them with the aim of converting them to his faith. The central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself.[12] His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, after centuries of apostasy in the churches in England.
In 1650, George Fox was brought before magistrates, Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religiousblasphemy. According to George Fox's autobiography, Bennet "was the first person that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord".[12] It is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66:2[15] or Ezra 9:4[16]. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Fox's admonition, but became widely accepted and is used by some Quakers.[17] Quakers also described themselves using terms such as true Christianity, Saints, Children of the Light, and Friends of the Truth, reflecting terms used in the New Testament by members of the early Christian church.
Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680[18] (1.15% of the population of England and Wales).[18] However the dominant discourse of Protestantism[19] viewed the Quakers as a blasphemous challenge to social and political order,[19] leading to official persecution in England and Wales under the Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Act 1664. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence (1687–1688) and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689.
One modern view of Quakerism at this time was that the relationship with Christ was encouraged through spiritualization of human relations, and “the redefinition of the Quakers as a holy tribe, “the family and household of God”” .[20] Together with Margaret Fell, the wife of Thomas Fell, who was the vice-chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and a pre-eminent judge, Fox developed new conceptions of family and community that emphasized “holy conversation”: speech and behavior that reflected piety, faith, and love.[21] With the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women; Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing “holy conversation” in her children and husband.[20] Quaker women were also responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in “meetings” which regulated marriage and domestic behavior.[22]
Immigration to North America[edit]
In search of economic opportunities and a more tolerant environment in which to build communities of "holy conversation," some Friends emigrated to what is now the Northeastern region of the United States in the early 1680s.[23]
While in some areas like New England they continued to experience persecution, they were able to establish thriving communities in the Delaware Valley. The only two colonies that tolerated Quakers in this time period were Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, where Quakers established themselves politically. In Rhode Island, 36 governors in the first 100 years were Quakers. Pennsylvania was established by affluent Quaker William Penn in 1682, and as an American state run under Quaker principles. William Penn signed a peace treaty with Tammany, leader of the Delaware tribe,[24] and other treaties between Quakers and native Americans followed.
Quietism[edit]
Early Quakerism tolerated boisterous behavior that challenged conventional etiquette, but by 1700, while they continued to encourage spontaneity of expression, they no longer supported disruptive and unruly behavior.[25] During the 18th century, Quakers entered the Quietist period in the history of their church, and they became more inward looking spiritually and less active in converting others. Marrying outside the Society was outlawed. Numbers dwindled, dropping to 19,800 in England and Wales by 1800 (0.21% of population),[18] and 13,859 by 1860 (0.07% of population).[18] The formal name "Religious Society of Friends", dates from this period, and was probably derived from the appellations "Friends of the Light" and "Friends of the Truth".
| Divisions of the Religious Society of Friends | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Showing the divisions of Quakers occurring in the 19th and 20th centuries. |
Splits[edit]
In the 19th century, there was a diversification of theological beliefs in the Religious Society of Friends, and this led to several large splits within the Quaker movement.
Hicksite–Orthodox split[edit]
The Hicksite-Orthodox split arose out of both ideologic and socio-economic tension. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Hicksites tended to be agrarian and poorer than the more urban, wealthier, Orthodox Quakers. With increasing financial success, Orthodox Quakers wanted to “make the Society a more respectable body—to transform their sect into a church—by adopting mainstream Protestant orthodoxy”.[26] Hicksites, though they held a variety of views, generally saw the market economy as corrupting, and believed Orthodox Quakers had sacrificed their orthodox Christian spirituality for material success. Hicksites viewed the Bible as secondary to the individual cultivation of God’s light within.[27]
With Gurneyite Quakers shift towards Protestant principles and away from the spiritualization of human relations, women’s role as promoters of “holy conversation” decreased. Conversely, within the Hicksite movement the rejection of the market economy and the continuing focus on community and family bonds tended to encourage women to retain their role as powerful arbiters.
Elias Hicks' religious views were claimed to be universalist and to contradict Quakers' historical orthodox Christian beliefs and practices. Elias Hicks' Gospel preaching and teaching precipitated the Great Separation of 1827 which resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in America, joined by Friends from Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. They were referred to by their opponents as Hicksites and by others, and sometimes themselves, as orthodox. Quakers in Great Britain only recognized theOrthodox Quakers and refused to correspond with the Hicksites.
Beaconite Controversy[edit]
Isaac Crewdson was a Recorded Minister in Manchester, UK. He published a book called A Beacon to the Society of Friends in 1835 which strongly argued that theinward light could not exist alongside a religious belief in salvation by the atonement of Christ.[28](p155) This Christian controversy led to Isaac Crewdson's resignation from the Religious Society of Friends, along with 48 fellow members of Manchester Meeting and about 250 other British Quakers in 1836–1837. Some of these Quakers joined the Plymouth Brethren Church.
Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite-Conservative split[edit]
Orthodox Friends became more evangelical during the 19th century [29] and were influenced by the Second Great Awakening. This movement was led by British Quaker Joseph John Gurney. Christian Friends held Revival meetings in America and became involved in the Holiness movement of churches. Quakers such as Hannah Whitall Smith and Robert Pearsall Smith became speakers in the religious movement and introduced Quaker phrases and practices to it.[28](p157) British Friends became involved with the Higher Life movement, with Robert Wilson from Cockermouth meeting founding the Keswick Convention.[28](p157). From the 1870s it became commonplace in Great Britain to have home mission meetings on a Sunday evening with Christian hymns and a Bible-based sermon alongside the silent meetings for worship on Sunday morning.[28](p155)
The Quaker Yearly Meetings which supported the religious beliefs of Joseph John Gurney were known as Gurneyite yearly meetings after Joseph John Gurney. Many eventually collectively became the Five Years Meeting and then Friends United Meeting, althoughLondon Yearly Meeting which had been strongly Gurneyite in the nineteenth century did not join either of these groups. These Quaker yearly meetings make up the largest proportion of Quakers in the world today.
Some orthodox Quakers in America disliked the move towards evangelical Christianity and saw it as a dilution of Friends' traditional orthodox Christian belief in being inwardly led by the Holy Spirit. These Friends were led by John Wilbur who was expelled from his yearly meeting in 1842. He and his supporters formed their own Conservative Friends Yearly Meeting. In the UK in 1868 some Friends broke away from London Yearly Meeting for the same reason. They formed a separate body of Friends called Fritchley General Meeting which remained distinct and separate from London Yearly Meeting until 1968. Similar Christian splits took place in Canada. The Yearly Meetings which supported John Wilbur's religious beliefs were known asConservative Friends.
Richmond Declaration[edit]
In 1887, a Gurneyite Quaker of British descent, Joseph Bevan Braithwaite, proposed to Friends a statement of faith known as the Richmond Declaration. This statement of faith was agreed to by 95 of the representatives at a meeting of Five Years Meeting Friends; but unexpectedly the Richmond Declaration was not adopted by London Yearly Meeting because a vocal minority, including Edward Grubb, opposed it.[30]
Missions to Asia and Africa[edit]
Following the Christian revivals in the mid-19th century, Friends in Great Britain wanted to start missionary activity overseas. The first missionaries were sent to Benares (Varanasi), in India in 1866. The Friends Foreign Mission Association was formed in 1868, and sent missionaries to Madhya Pradesh, India, forming what is now Mid-India Yearly Meeting; and later toMadagascar from 1867, China from 1896, Sri Lanka from 1896, and Pemba Island from 1897.[31] The Friends Syrian Mission was established in 1874, which among other institutions ran the Ramallah Friends Schools which still exist today. Swiss missionary Theophilus Waldmeier founded Brummana High School in Lebanon in 1873.[31] Evangelical Friends Churches from Ohio Yearly Meeting sent missionaries to India in 1896,[32] forming what is now Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting. Cleveland Friends went to Mombasa, Kenya, and started what was the most successful Friends' mission. Christian Quakerism spread within Kenya and to Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda.
Theory of evolution[edit]
The theory of evolution described by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century,[33] particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of Darwin's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process.[34] For example, influential British Quaker scientist Edward Newman[35] stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."
However, some young Friends such as John Wilhelm Rowntree and Edward Grubb supported Darwin's theories adopting a doctrine of progressive revelation with evolutionary ideas.[34] In the USA, Joseph Moore taught the theory of evolution at the Quaker Earlham College as early as 1861[36] and was probably one of the first teachers in the Midwest to do so.[37] Acceptance of the theory of evolution became more widespread in those Yearly Meetings which moved towards liberal Christianity in the twentieth century, whilst a belief in creationism exists within evangelical Friends Churches, particularly in East Africa and parts of the USA.
Quaker Renaissance: Move towards liberalism in Great Britain[edit]
In the late 19th century and early 20th century a religious movement known as the Quaker Renaissance movement began within London Yearly Meeting. Young Friends in London Yearly Meeting at this time moved away from evangelicalism and towards liberal Christianity.[38] This Quaker Renaissance movement was particularly influenced by John Wilhelm Rowntree, Edward Grubb, and Rufus Jones. These Liberal Friends promoted the theory of evolution, modern biblical criticism, and the social meaning of Jesus Christ's teaching — encouraging Friends to follow the New Testament example of Christ by performing good works. These Quaker men downplayed the evangelical Quaker belief in the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary.[38] After the Manchester Conference in England in 1895, one thousand British Friends met to consider the future of British Quakerism and, as a result, liberal Quaker thought gradually increased within London Yearly Meeting.[39]
Conscientious objection[edit]
In the First World War and in the Second World War, Friends' opposition to war was put to the test. Many Friends becameconscientious objectors and some formed the Friends Ambulance Unit with the aim of co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old, and the American Friends Service Committee.
Formation of Friends World Committee for Consultation[edit]
After the two great wars had brought closer together the different kinds of Quakers; Friends from different yearly meetings — many of whom had served together in the Friends Ambulance Unit, and on the American Friends Service Committee, and in other relief work — later held several Quaker World Conferences; and this subsequently resulted in the creation of a standing body of Friends named Friends World Committee for Consultation
Evangelical Friends[edit]
After World War I, a growing desire for a more fundamentalist approach among some Friends began a split amongst Five Years Meetings. In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting seceded from Five Years Meeting, bringing together several other yearly meetings and scattered monthly meetings. In 1947, the Association of Evangelical Friends was formed, with triennial meetings which lasted until 1970. In 1965, this was replaced by the Evangelical Friends Alliance which, in 1989, becameEvangelical Friends Church International.[40]
Role of women[edit]
From its inception, the Quaker emphasis on family and community relations gave women spiritual power. Through the women’s meeting, women oversaw domestic and community life, including marriage.[22] From the beginning, Quaker women, most notably Margaret Fell, played an important role in defining Quakerism.[41][42]However, within the Quaker movement, some resented the power of women within the community. In the early years of Quakerism, George Fox faced resistance in developing and establishing women’s meetings. This resistance culminated in the Wilkinson-Story split, in which a portion of the Quaker community left to worship independently in protest of women’s meetings.[43] After several years, the schism became largely resolved, testifying to the resistance of some within the Quaker community, and to the radical spiritual role of women that George Fox and Margaret Fell had encouraged. Also particularly within the relatively prosperous Quaker communities of the eastern United States, the focus on the child and “holy conversation” gave women unusual community power, although they were largely excluded from the market economy. With the Hicksite-Orthodox split of 1827–1828, Orthodox women found their spiritual role decreased, while Hicksite women retained greater influence.
Friends in business[edit]
Dynasties of Quakers were successful in business matters. This included ironmaking by Abraham Darby I[44] and his family; banking, including Lloyds Banking Group (founded by Sampson Lloyd),[44] Barclays PLC,[44] Backhouse's Bank and Gurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys[44]); chocolate (Cadbury,[44] Terry's, Fry's[44]); confectionery (Rowntree[44]); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers[44]); match manufacture (Bryant & May, Francis May and William Bryant) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks).
Friends in education[edit]
Initially, Quakers had no ordained clergy, and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. In England, Quaker schools sprang up, with Friends School Saffron Walden being the most prominent.[45] Later in America they founded Haverford College (1833),[46] Guilford College (1837), Pickering College (1842), Earlham College (1844), Swarthmore College (1864), Wilmington College (Ohio) (1870), Bryn Mawr College (1885), Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University) (1885), Cleveland Bible College (now Malone University) (1892),[47] Friends University (1898), Training School for Christian Workers (now Azusa Pacific University) (1899)[48] Whittier College (1901), and Friends Bible College (now Barclay College) (1917).[49] In Great Britain, they organized Woodbrooke College in 1903. In Kenya, Quakers founded Friends Bible Institute (now Friends Theological College) in Kaimosi, Kenya, in 1942.
Friends and slavery[edit]
Some Quakers in North America and Great Britain became well known for their involvement in the abolition of slavery. However, prior to the American Revolution, it was fairly common for Friends in British America to own slaves. During the early to mid-1700s a disquiet about this practice arose among Friends which was best exemplified by the testimonies of Anthony Benezet and John Woolman; and this resulted in an abolition movement among Friends so powerful that by the time of the American Revolution few Friends owned slaves any longer. Another dramatic reversal of such policies and sentiments took place in the life of Moses Brown, one of four Rhode Island brothers who, in 1764, organized and funded the tragic and fateful voyage of the slave ship named, Sally. Moses Brown broke away from his three brothers, became an abolitionist, and converted to Christian Quakerism. William Wilberforce and William Pitt helped the Quakers in parliament, both becoming Historic Heroes.
Theology[edit]
 | This section possibly contains original research. (June 2013) |
The theological beliefs of Quaker yearly meetings vary considerably. Tolerance of dissent widely varies among yearly meetings.[50]
Most Friends believe in continuing revelation, which is the religious belief that truth is continuously revealed directly to individuals from God. George Fox, an "early Friend", described it as "Christ has come to teach His people Himself."[12] Friends often focus on trying to hear God. As Isaac Penington, wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing—to feel him to be my root, my life, and my foundation..."[51] Quakers reject the idea of priests, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Some Friends express their concept of God using various phrases which include the inner light, or inward light of Christ, the Holy Spirit or other phrases.
Diverse theological beliefs, understandings of the "leading of the Holy Spirit", and statements of "faith and practice" have always existed among Friends. Due in part to the emphasis on the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, Quaker doctrines have only sometimes been codified as statements of faith, confessions or theological texts; those that do exist include the Letter to the Governor of Barbados (Fox, 1671),[52] An Apology for the True Christian Divinity (Barclay, 1678),[53] A Catechism and Confession of Faith (Barclay, 1690),[54] The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America (adopted jointly by all orthodox yearly meetings in USA, 1830),[55] the Richmond Declaration of Faith (adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1887),[56] and Essential Truths (Jones and Wood, adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1922).[57] As a public statement of faith, most yearly meetings publish their own Book of Discipline, that expresses Christian discipleship within the experience of Friends in that yearly meeting.
Conservative[edit]
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Main article: Conservative Friends
Conservative Friends (also known as "Wilburites" after their founder, John Wilbur), share some of the beliefs of George Fox and the Early Friends. Many Wilburites see themselves as the Quakers whose beliefs are most true to original Quaker doctrine, arguing that the majority of Friends "broke away" from the Wilburite Quakers in the 19th and 20th centuries (rather than the Wilburites being the "breakaway" sect). Conservative Friends place their trust in the immediate guidance of God.[58]Conservative Friends completely reject all forms of religious symbolism and outward sacraments, such as the Eucharist andwater baptism. Conservative Friends do not believe in relying upon the practice of outward rites and sacraments, to have a relationship with God through Christ; believing that holiness can exist in all of the activities of one's daily life — and that all of life is sacred in God. Many Conservative Friends believe that a meal which is held with others, can become a form ofcommunion with God, and with one another.
In the USA, Conservative Friends are part of three[when?] small Quaker Yearly Meetings in Ohio, North Carolina and Iowa; Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered to be the most Bible-centred of the three Conservative Friends Yearly Meetings, retaining Christian Quakers who use the plain language, who continue to wear plain dress, and who live in small villages or rural areas; more than the Conservative Friends from the other two Conservative Friends Yearly Meetings.[59]
Conservative Friends make up around 0.03% of the world family of Quakers.[50]
Evangelical[edit]
See also: Evangelical Friends Church International
Evangelical Friends make up around 40% of the total number of Friends worldwide.[50] They regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour,[58] and have similar religious beliefs to other evangelical Christians. They believe in, and hold a high regard for, the penal substitution of the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary, biblical infallibility, and the need for every person to personally experience a relationship with God.[60] They believe that the purpose of the Evangelical Friends Church is to evangelise the unsaved people of the world, to spiritually transform them through God's love, and through social service to others.[60] Evangelical Friends regard the Bible as the infallible and self-authenticating Word of God. The statement of faith of Evangelical Friends International, is comparable to the statement of faith of other Evangelical churches. Evangelical Friends who are members of Evangelical Friends International, are mainly located in the USA, Central America, and Asia. Beginning in the 1880s, some Friends began using outward sacraments in their Sunday services, first in Evangelical Friends Church-Eastern Region (then known as Ohio Yearly Meeting [Damascus]). Friends Church-Southwest Region, has also approved the practice of using the outward sacraments in their Sunday services. In places where Evangelical Friends are engaged in missionary work, such as in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, adult baptism by immersion in water, is carried out. This practice differs from most other Quaker branches of the Religious Society of Friends.
Gurneyite[edit]
See also: Friends United Meeting
Gurneyite Friends (aka Friends United Meeting Friends), are the modern-day followers of the Evangelical Quaker theology which was first proclaimed by Joseph John Gurney, a 19th-century British Friend. They make up 49% of the total number of Quakers worldwide.[50] They regard Jesus Christ as their Teacher and Lord,[58] and favour working closely with other Protestant Christian churches. Gurneyite Friends place more emphasis on the authority of the Bible as the direct Word of God than on personal and direct experience of God in their lives. Both children and adults participate in ongoing religious education which emphasises orthodox Christian teaching from the Bible, and in relationship to both orthodox Christian Quaker history and Quaker testimonies. Gurneyite Friends subscribe to a set of orthodox Christian doctrines, such as those found in the Richmond Declaration of faith. In subsequent years, conflict arose amongst Gurneyite Friends in relation to the Richmond Declaration of faith. Thus, after a while, the Richmond Declaration of faith was adopted by nearly all of the Gurneyite yearly meetings. The Five Years Meeting of Friends reaffirmed their loyalty to the Richmond Declaration of faith in 1912, but specifically stated that it was not to constitute a Christian creed. Although Gurneyism was the main form of Quakerism in Great Britain in the 19th century, Gurneyite Friends are today located in America, Ireland, Africa and India. Many Gurneyite Friends combine "waiting worship" (unprogrammed worship), with religious practices commonly found in other Protestant Christian churches, such as the reading of the Bible and the singing of Hymns. A small minority of Gurneyite Friends practice entirely unprogrammed worship.[citation needed]
Holiness[edit]
See also: Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Holiness Friends are heavily influenced by the Holiness movement, in particular John Wesley's doctrine of Christian perfection, also called "entire sanctification." This doctrine states that loving God and humanity totally, as exemplified by Christ, enables believers to rid themselves of voluntary sin. This was a predominant view within Quakerism in the United Kingdom, and in the United States, in the 19th century, and it influenced other branches of Quakerism. Holiness Friends argue that early Friends, including George Fox's message of perfection, is the same as holiness.[61]
Today, whilst there are some Friends who hold holiness beliefs within most yearly meetings, it is the predominant theological view of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, (founded in 1926 specifically to promote holiness theology), and the Holiness Mission of the Bolivian Evangelical Friends Church (founded by missionaries from that meeting in 1919, the largest group of Friends in Bolivia).[62]
Liberal[edit]
Liberal Quakerism generally refers to Friends who have taken ideas from liberal Christianity, often sharing a similar mix of ideas, such as more critical Biblicalhermeneutics, often with a focus on the social gospel. The ideas of That of God in everyone and the inner light were popularised by American Friend Rufus Jones, in the early 20th century. He and John Wilhelm Rowntree originated the movement. Liberal Friends were predominant in Great Britain in the 20th century, and amongst US meetings affiliated to Friends General Conference; and some meetings in Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa.
These ideas remain an important part of liberal Friends' understanding of God. Liberal Friends highlight the importance of good works, particularly living a life that upholds the virtues preached by Jesus. They often emphasize pacifism, treating others equally, living simply and telling the truth.[50]
Like Conservatives Friends, Liberal Friends reject religious symbolism and sacraments, such as water baptism and the Eucharist. While Liberal Friends recognize the potential of these outward forms for awakening experiences of the Inward Light of Christ, they are not part of their worship, and are unnecessary to authentic Christian spirituality.
The Bible remains central to most Liberal Friends' worship, and almost all meetings make the Holy Bible available in the meeting house, (often on a table in the centre of the room), which attendees may read privately or publicly during worship. However, Liberal Friends, decided that the Scriptures should give way to God's leading, if God leads them in a way that is contrary to the Holy Bible. Many Friends are also influenced by liberal Christian theologians, and modern Biblical criticism. They often adopt non-propositional Biblical hermeneutics, such as believing that the Holy Bible is an anthology of human authors' beliefs and feelings about God, rather than Holy Writ, and that multiple interpretations of the Scriptures are acceptable.
Liberal Friends believe that a corporate confession of faith would be an obstacle—both to authentic listening and to new insight. As a non-creedal form of Christianity, Liberal Quakerism is receptive to a wide range of religious faith understandings. Most Liberal Quaker Yearly Meetings publish a Faith and Practice, a book with a range of religious experiences of what it means to be a Friend in that Yearly Meeting.
Universalist[edit]
Main article: Quaker Universalist Fellowship
Universalist Friends affirm religious pluralism, that there are many different paths to God and that understandings of the divine reached through non-Christian religious experiences are as valid as Christian understandings. This group was founded in the late 1970s by John Linton. Linton had worshipped God with the Delhi Worship Group in India (an independent meeting not affiliated to any yearly meeting or wider Quaker group) with Christians, Muslims and Hindus worshipping together.[63] Following a move to Great Britain, he founded the Quaker Universalist Fellowship in 1978. Later his views spread to the US where the Quaker Universalist Fellowship was founded in 1983.[63] Most of the Friends who joined these two fellowships were Liberal Friends from Britain Yearly Meeting in the United Kingdom, and Liberal Friends from Friends General Conference in the United States. Interest in Quaker Universalism is low among Friends from other Yearly meetings. The views of the Universalists provoked controversy between themselves and Christian Quakers within Britain Yearly Meeting, and within Friends General Conference, during the 1980s. Despite the label, Quaker "Universalists" are not necessarily Christian Universalists, embracing the doctrine of universal reconciliation.
Non-theist[edit]
Main article: Nontheist Friend
These Friends have views similar to other post-Christian non-theists in other churches such as the Sea of Faith within the Anglican church. They are predominantly atheists, agnostics, and humanists who nevertheless value membership in a religious organization. The first organization for non-theist Friends was the Humanistic Society of Friends, founded in Los Angeles in 1939. This organization remained small and was absorbed into the American Humanist Association.[64] More recently, interest in non-theism resurfaced, particularly led by British Friend David Boulton, who founded the 40 member Nontheist Friends Network in 2011.[65] Non-theism is controversial, leading some Christian Quakers from within Britain Yearly Meeting to call for non-theists to be refused membership.[66] In one study of Friends inBritain Yearly Meeting, around 30% of Quakers had views that were described as non-theistic, agnostic, or atheist.[67][68] Another study put the number of believing Friends as high as 92%.It claimed that 70%+ of Quakers in Great Britain, regard Christ as their supreme religious guide, while a further 20%+ believed in Christ's importance and hold a syncreticist view of religious life (Quaker Universalists).[citation needed] Another study of British Quakers, found that of the 727 members of the Religious Society of Friends who completed the survey, 75.1% said that they consider themselves to be Christian; 17.6% did not consider themselves Christian; and 7.3% of the members either did not answer or circled both answers.[69]:p.41 A further 22% of Quakers did not consider themselves to be a Christian, but fulfilled a definition of being a Christian in that they said that they devoutly followed the teachings and example of Jesus Christ.[69]:p.52 In the same survey 86.9% said that they believed in God