Karaism (/ˈkærə.aɪt/ or /ˈkærə.ɪzəm/; Hebrew: יהדות קראית , Modern Yahadut Qara'it,Tiberian Qārāʾîm ; meaning "Readers (of the Hebrew Scriptures)")[a] is a Jewish movement characterized by the recognition of the Tanakh alone as its supreme legal authority in Halakha (Jewish religious law) and theology. It is distinct from mainstream Rabbinic Judaism, which considers the Oral Torah, as codified in theTalmud and subsequent works to be authoritative interpretations of the Torah. Karaites maintain that all of the divine commandments handed down to Moses by God were recorded in the written Torah without additional Oral Law or explanation. As a result, Karaite Jews do not accept as binding the written collections of the oral tradition in the Midrash or Talmud.
When interpreting the Tanakh, Karaites strive to adhere to the plain or most obvious meaning ("peshat") of the text; this is not necessarily the literal meaning, but rather the meaning that would have been naturally understood by the ancient Israelites when the books of the Tanakh were first written. In contrast, Rabbinic Judaism relies on the legal rulings of the Sanhedrin as they are codified in the Midrash, Talmud, and other sources to indicate the authentic meaning of the Torah.[b] Karaite Judaism holds every interpretation of the Tanakh to the same scrutiny regardless of its source, and teaches that it is the personal responsibility of every individual Jew to study the Torah, and ultimately decide for themselves its correct meaning. Therefore, Karaites may consider arguments made in the Talmud and other works without exalting them above other viewpoints.
According to Rabbi Avraham ben David, in his Sefer HaQabbalah, the Karaite movement crystallized in Baghdad in the Gaonic period (circa 7th–9th centuries CE), under the Abbasid Caliphate in what is present-day Iraq. This is the view universally accepted among Rabbinic Jews. However, the claim has been made that Karaites were already living in Egypt in the first half of the 7th century, the evidence consisting of a legal document that the Karaite community in Egypt had in its possession until the end of the 19th century, which was said to be stamped by the palm of 'Amr ibn al-'As, the first Islamic governor of Egypt, in which he ordered the leaders of the Rabbanite community not to interfere in the way of life of the Karaites nor with the way they celebrate their holidays. This document was reported to be dated 20 AH(641 CE).[1][2][3]
Historians have argued over whether Karaism has a direct connection to anti-Rabbinic sects and views, such as those of the Sadducees, dating back to the end of the Second Temple period (70 CE), or whether Karaism represents a novel emergence of similar views. Karaites have always maintained that, while there are some similarities to the Sadducees, there are also differences, and that the ancestors of the Karaites were another group called Benei Ṣedeq during the Second Temple period.[4]
Karaites were at one time a significant proportion of the Jewish population.[5] Estimates of the Karaite population are difficult to make because they believe on the basis of Genesis 32 that counting Jews is forbidden. Some 30–50,000 are thought to reside in Israel, with smaller communities in Turkey, Europe and the United States.[6] Another estimate holds that, of the 50,000 world-wide, over 40,000 descend from those who made aliyah from Egypt and Iraq to Israel.[7]
Contents
[hide]History[edit]
Origins[edit]
Arguments among Jewish sects regarding the validity of the Oral Law can be dated back to the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE. Accordingly, some scholars trace the origin of Karaism to those who rejected the Talmudic tradition as an innovation.
Abraham Geiger posited a connection between the Karaites as a remnant of the Sadducees, the 1st-century Jewish sect that followed the Hebrew Bible literally and rejected the Pharisees' notion of an Oral Torah even before it was written. Geiger's view is based on comparison between Karaite and Sadducee halakha: for example, there is a minority in Karaite Judaism who, like the Sadducees, do not believe in a final resurrection or after-life.[8]The British theologian John Gill (1767) noted,
Gill also traces the Karaite sect to the split between the schools of Hillel the Elder and Shammai in 30 BCE.[10]
However, Bernard Revel, in his dissertation on "Karaite Halakhah", rejects many of Geiger's proofs.[11] Revel also points to the many correlations between Karaite halakha and theology and the interpretations of Philo of Alexandria, the 1st-century philosopher and Jewish scholar, as well as the writings of a 10th-century Karaite who brings down the writings of Philo, showing that the Karaites made use of Philo's writings in the development of their movement. Later Medieval Karaite commentators[who?] did not view Philo in a favorable light. These attitudes show a friction between later Karaite theology and possible connections to Philo's philosophy, which could serve as either a rejection of their origins, rejecting theological positions no longer accepted, or that Philo's philosophy was not entirely utilized in its founding (although some influences remain possible).[citation needed]
Others suggest that the major impetus for the formation of Karaism was a reaction to the rise of Islam,[12] which recognized Judaism as a fellow monotheistic faith, but claimed that it detracted from this monotheism by deferring to rabbinical authority.
9th century[edit]
Anan Ben David (c. 715 – 795 or 811?) (Hebrew: ענן בן דוד) is widely considered to be a major founder of the Karaite movement. His followers were called Ananites and, like modern Karaites, did not believe the Rabbinic Jewish oral law was divinely inspired.
According to 12th century Rabbanite account, in approximately 760 CE, Shelomoh ben Ḥisdai II the Jewish exilarch in Babylon died, and two brothers among his nearest kin, ‘Anan ben David (whose name according to the Rabbanite account was ‘Anan ben Shafaṭ, but was called ben David due to his Davidic lineage) and Ḥananyah, were next in order of succession. Eventually Ḥananyah was elected by the rabbis of the Babylonian Jewish colleges (the Ge’onim) and by the notables of the chief Jewish congregations, and the choice was confirmed by the Caliph of Baghdad.
A schism may have occurred, with ‘Anan Ben David being proclaimed exilarch by his followers. However, not all scholars agree that this event occurred. Leon Nemoy notes,[13] "Natronai, scarcely ninety years after ‘Anan's secession, tells us nothing about his aristocratic (Davidic) descent or about the contest for the office of exilarch which allegedly served as the immediate cause of his apostasy."[14] He later notes that Natronai — a devout Rabbanite Jew — lived where ‘Anan's activities took place, and that the Karaite sage Ya‘akov Al-Qirqisani never mentioned ‘Anan's purported lineage or candidacy for exilarch.[14]
Anan allowed himself to be proclaimed Exilarch by his followers, a step construed as treason by the Muslim government.[citation needed] He was sentenced to death, but his life was saved by his fellow prisoner, Abū Ḥanīfa, the founder of the great school of Moslem theology and jurisprudence. Ultimately he and his followers were permitted to migrate to Palestine. They erected a synagogue in Jerusalem that continued to be maintained until the time of the Crusades. From this centre the sect diffused itself thinly over Syria, spread into Egypt, and ultimately reached S.E. Europe.[15]
Ben David challenged the Rabbanite establishment and some scholars conjecture that his followers may have absorbed Jewish Babylonian sects such as the Isunians[16] (followers of Abu ‘Isa al-Isfahani), Yudghanites,[17] and the remnants of the pre-Talmudic Sadducees and Boethusians; later, non-Ananist sects such as the Ukbarites emerged. However, the Isunians, Yudghanites, ‘Ukabarites, and Mishawites all held views that did not accord with either those of the ‘Ananites or the Karaites. Abu ‘Isa al-Isfahani, who was an illiterate tailor, claimed to be a prophet, prohibited divorce, claimed that all months should have thirty days, believed in Jesus and Muhammad as prophets, and told his followers that they must study the New Testament and the Qur’an; Yudghan was a follower of ‘Isa al-Isfahani and claimed to be a prophet and the Messiah and claimed that the observance of Shabbat and Holy Days was no longer obligatory; Isma‘’il al-‘Ukbari believed he was the prophet Elijah, and hated ‘Anan; and Mishawayh al-‘Ukbari, who was a disciple of Isma‘’il al-‘Ukbari and the founder of the Mishawites, taught his followers to use a purely solar calendar of 364 days and 30 day months, insisted that all the Holy Days and fast days should always occur on fixed days in the week, rather than on fixed days of the months, and said that Shabbat should be kept from sunrise on Saturday to sunrise on Sunday. Such beliefs were anathema to Ananites and Karaites and their practitioners were excoriated by the Karaites, thus the conjecture that they were absorbed by the Ananites and Karaites is absurd.
Anan devoted himself to the development of his movement's core tenets. His Sefer HaMiṣwot ("The Book of the Commandments") was published about 770. He adopted many principles and opinions of other anti-rabbinic forms of Judaism that had previously existed. He took much from the old Sadducees and Essenes, whose remnants still survived, and whose writings—or at least writings ascribed to them—were still in circulation. Thus, for example, these older sects prohibited the burning of any lights and the leaving of one's dwelling on the Sabbath (unlike the Sadducees, ‘Anan and the Qumran sectaries prohibited leaving one's town or camp, but not one's house; ‘Anan said that one should not leave one's house for frivolous things, but only to go to prayer or to study scripture); they also enjoined the actual observation of the new moon for the appointment of festivals, and the holding of the Pentecost festival always on a Sunday.
The Golden Age[edit]
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In the "Golden Age of Karaism" (900–1100) a large number of Karaite works were produced in all parts of the Muslim world. Karaite Jews were able to obtain autonomy from Rabbanite Judaism in the Muslim world and establish their own institutions. Karaites in the Muslim world also obtained high social positions such as tax collectors, doctors, and clerks, and even received special positions in the Egyptian courts. Karaite scholars were among the most conspicuous practitioners in the philosophical school known as Jewish Kalam.
According to historian Salo Wittmayer Baron, at one time the number of Jews affiliating with Karaism was as much as 40 percent of world Jewry, and debates between Rabbanite and Karaite leaders were not uncommon.
Most notable among the opposition to Karaite thought and practice at this time are the writings of Rabbi Saadia Gaon, which eventually led to a permanent split between some Karaite and Rabbanite communities. (>> the Who did Maimonides do?)
Russian Empire Karaites (Qaraylar)[edit]
Main article: Crimean Karaites
During the late 19th century, Russian authorities began to differentiate Karaites from Rabbanite Jews, freeing them from various anti-Semitic laws that affected Jews. The Tsarist governor of the Crimean area told the Karaite leaders that, even though the Tsarist government liked the idea that the Karaites did not accept the Talmud(which the church taught was the reason the Jews did not accept Jesus), they were still Jews and responsible for the death of Jesus and subject to the new anti-semitic laws. The leaders, hearing that, devised a ruse by which they could be freed of the oppressive laws and told him that the Karaites had already settled in the Crimea before the death of Jesus. The Tsarist government then said that, if they could prove it, they would be free of the oppressive laws. The community leaders charged Avraham Firkovich (1786-1874) with gathering anything that could help "prove" that Karaites were not in Jerusalem at the time of Jesus, and thus not responsible for the crucifixion. Through his work, Firkovich helped establish the idea among the Tsarist authorities that the Karaites, as descendants of the exiled northern kingdom of Israel, had already gone into exile centuries before the death of Jesus and thus had no responsibility for it. Firkovich referenced tombstones in Crimea (altering the dates) and gathered thousands of Karaite, Rabbanite, and Samaritan manuscripts, including one Rabbanite document from the southern Caucasus that claims that the Jews there were descendants of the exiles from the northern Kingdom of Israel.
These actions convinced the Russian Czar[which?] that Karaite ancestors could not have killed Jesus and that thus their descendants were free of familial guilt (which was an underlying reason or pretext given at that time for anti-Semitic laws).
All this served for external consumption. Within the community Ḥakhamim still taught that the Karaites were and have always been a part of the Jewish people, prayer was in Hebrew, the lineage of Kohanim, Levites, and families of Davidic descent were meticulously preserved, and books printed in Hebrew adamantly identified the Karaites as Jews.
In 1897 the Russian census counted 12,894 Karaims in the Russian Empire.[18]
By the early 20th century, most European Karaites were no longer very knowledgeable about the religion and Seraya Szapszal, a Karaite soldier of fortune who had been the tutor of the last Qajar Shah of Persia Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar and a Russian spy, managed about 1911 to get himself elected Chief Ḥakham of the Karaites in the Russian Empire (by that time, due to Russian regulations, the position had become more of a political one than a spiritual one). Influenced by the Pan-Turkic movement in Turkey,[19] Szapszal made his position into that of an Emperor-priest. He changed the titleḤakham to Ḥakhan (a cross between the Turkic titles Khaqan and Khan), forbade the use of Hebrew, and in the 1930s introduced pagan elements (such as the veneration of sacred oak trees in the cemetery). He recognized both Jesus and Muhammad as prophets (thus appeasing both the Russian Orthodox Tsarist government and the Muslim Turkic peoples).[20]
After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, atheism became official state policy in Soviet territories and Karaite religious schools and places of worship were the very first religious institutions closed by the Soviet government. The authorities allowed only the teaching of Szapszalian doctrines about the Karaites, and the official stance according to Soviet law (carried over from Tsarist law) erroneously regarded the Karaimi as Turkic descendants of the Khazars and not as Jews.[21]
Not all European Karaites accepted the Szapszalian doctrines. Some Hakhamim and a small part of the general Karaite population still preserved their Jewish heritage, but most dared not oppose Szapszal openly due to his official standing vis-à-vis the Soviet government.[22]
Beliefs[edit]
Karaites believe they observe the original religion of Ancient Israel, as prescribed by God in the Tanakh and understood by the Israelites before the Pharisaic period, and do not accept later additions such as the Talmud of Rabbinic Judaism. They place the ultimate responsibility of interpreting the Tanakh on each individual. Karaism holds every interpretation up to the same objective scrutiny regardless of its source.
Karaites believe in an eternal, one, and incorporeal God, Creator of Universe, who gave the Tanakh to humankind, through Moses and the Prophets. Karaites trust in Divine providence and the majority hope for the coming of the Messiah.
Views on the Mishnah
See also: Criticism of the Talmud
Karaites do not accept the existence of an Oral Law because:
- The Mishnah quotes many conflicting opinions.
- The Mishnah does not go on to say in which opinion the truth lies. Rather, the Mishnah sometimes agrees with neither one nor the other, contradicting both.
- They argue that the truth of the oral law given to Moses could only be in one opinion, not many opinions.
- They question why the Mishnah does not solely speak in the name of Moses.
- The Oral Law is not explicitly mentioned in the Tanakh.
- When God told Moses to come up to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah He said, "Come up to me into the mountain, and be there: and I will give you tablets of stone, and a law, and commandments that I have written"; (Ex 24:12). The text states the commands are written, and no mention is made of an Oral Law.
- The Tanakh reports that the written Torah was both lost and completely forgotten for over 50 years and only rediscovered by the Temple priests (2Ki 22:8; 2Chr 34:15). It is inconceivable that an Oral Law could have been remembered when even the written Law was forgotten.
- The words of the Mishnah and Talmud are clearly the words of people living in the 2nd–5th centuries CE, in contrast to the Torah, which is held to be a direct revelation by God through Moses.
- The Torah states, "You shall not add to the word that I am commanding you, nor take away from it, that you may keep the commandments of YHWH, your God, which I command you." (Deut 4:2) They argue that this excludes the possibility of later interpretation, when that interpretation is viewed as divinely ordained.
- Joshua 8:34–35 states:
Since Joshua read from the Torah every word Moses had written, this implies that Moses had not been given an Oral Law, since Joshua could not have read an Oral Law from the written Torah. Secondly, there could not have been additional commandments outside of the written Torah, since all the commandments that existed could be read from the Torah scroll.
In addition to this, Joshua 1:8 states: This book of the law is not to depart out of your mouth, but you are to meditate on it day and night, so that you may observe to do according to all that is written in it.