FOREWORD
The Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā') were the anonymous members of an esoteric fraternity of urban intellectuals based primarily in Basra, with a branch in Baghdad, during the tenth century. The exact identities of the authors, the dating of their work, and their specific doctrinal affiliation remain scholarly mysteries. The most common account, related by the writer Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī, identifies four members, though this story is not universally accepted by scholars. Alternative Ismaili traditions attribute the work to early Imams.
The Brethren's philosophy was uniquely syncretic. Alongside the Qur'an and hadith, they reverently appealed to the Jewish Torah and Christian Gospels, seeking "veracity in every religion." They blended Islamic teachings with the legacies of Greek thinkers—including Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus—to establish a spiritual refuge that transcended sectarian divisions. Their encyclopedic work, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity (Rasā'il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā'), consists of fifty-two epistles divided into four parts: Mathematics (14 epistles), Natural Philosophy (17 epistles), Sciences of the Soul and Intellect (10 epistles), and Theology (11 epistles).
Modern scholarship has long relied on printed editions from the 19th and 20th centuries, but these are uncritical and do not reveal their manuscript sources, making them insufficient for definitive research. To remedy this, the Institute of Ismaili Studies has undertaken a new multi-volume project to produce a critical Arabic edition and annotated English translation based on nineteen carefully selected manuscripts from collections around the world.
The traditional fifty-second epistle on magic is actually two distinct texts combined by modern editors; this volume focuses on the authentic "short version" (52a), whose place in the original corpus is confirmed by a network of internal cross-references.
This volume's critical text of Epistle 52a is based on two key manuscripts from the 13th and 15th centuries, though the significant time gap since the original composition makes establishing a perfect manuscript history challenging.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The epistle begins by addressing the reader as "my brother" and situating itself as the culmination of the entire encyclopedic project. It explicitly refers to the "fifty epistles that precede this epistle" and directs the reader to the risālat al-fihrist (Epistle of the Table of Contents), confirming its position as the final, fifty-first treatise.
The authors immediately frame their work as a defense of esoteric science against contemporary skeptics, whom they label "pseudo-savants" and "new-comers amongst the philosophers of our time." They argue that these critics dismiss magic out of ignorance, having only seen it practiced by the foolish and failing to understand that it is "part of the ultimate sciences of philosophy." The science of magic is established as being dependent on and subsequent to the science of astrology, and the reader is cross-referenced to Epistle 3 for the necessary prerequisite knowledge on stars, spheres, and the zodiac.
Using the two lunar nodes—the Head and Tail of the Dragon—as an example of invisible astronomical points with observable effects, the authors argue by analogy for the existence of imperceptible spiritual beings such as angels, jinn, and devils, cross-referencing Epistle 49 for a fuller discussion. The introduction concludes by laying out a fivefold division of the highest esoteric sciences and their practical benefits: alchemy banishes poverty, astrology reveals the future, magic joins subjects to kings and kings to angels, medicine preserves health, and asceticism ennobles the soul.
Concise Summary: This introductory chapter frames the epistle as the capstone of the Brethren's entire scientific project, defending magic against contemporary skeptics by grounding it in astrology and arguing for the existence of spiritual beings, while classifying it among the five highest esoteric sciences.
Magic with the Greeks: The Story of Gyges
ARGUMENT FROM ANCIENT AUTHORITY
It is necessary to address those who disavow the science of magic and treat its believers as liars. To counter these skeptics, the argument will rely not on empirical proof but on an appeal to authority, using testimonies recorded by the ancients in their books. A story of patent notoriety has been selected, one whose subject is so well-established that only an "idiot" could dismiss it. This preemptive defense is intended to make sure that skeptics cannot find a way to treat the authors as liars, thereby reinforcing their own authority.
THE TALE OF GYGES'S RING
With remarkable precision, the philosopher Plato is cited as the source, specifically the second treatise of his book the Republic, as narrated by the character Glaucon. The story concerns a man named Gyges (whose Greek name is deformed in Arabic to Jirjis), a shepherd from a city named Europe—a significant deviation from Plato’s original setting of Lydia, likely arising from a translator’s error.
During Gyges’s time, rains and earthquakes occurred, causing a piece of earth to break away and form a cavity where he was tending his sheep. Marveling at it, the man walked down into the chasm and saw wondrous things. Among them was a horse worked out of copper with small openings. Peeking through the openings, he saw a dead human inside whose height was greater than the measure of a normal man. The corpse wore absolutely nothing other than a golden ring on its hand. Gyges took the ring and left the cavity.
Following their custom, the shepherds would gather once a month to report to the king about their flocks. Gyges was present with them, wearing the ring. While sitting with the others, it happened that he hit the ring with his hand and turned it on his finger so that the stone faced the inner side, next to his palm. When he did this, he disappeared from the sight of those sitting with him; they did not see him and began to talk as if he had left. Marveling at this, he then hit his hand on his ring and turned its stone to the outside. As he did, the people started to see him again. Understanding the ring’s power, he tested it and found that whenever he turned the stone to the inner side, he became concealed from view, and when he turned it to the outside, he became visible.
From that moment, he behaved amicably and used tricks to become one of the king’s deputies. When he got close to the king, he killed him and became king at once. This version of the story suppresses a key detail from Plato’s account—the seduction of the queen and her role in the plot—likely a case of self-censure to make the tale more palatable from an Islamic perspective. Furthermore, the purpose of the story is radically altered. For Plato, it was a fable illustrating humanity's inherent tendency toward injustice when the fear of punishment is removed, and he never used the word "magic." For the authors, however, the story serves as a prime example of the reality and power of talismans and the improper use of magic.
A DEFENSE OF TALISMANIC SCIENCE
The authors then ask rhetorically: would a philosopher of Plato's excellence and intelligence have related this narrative if the talisman's effect—its "power of action"—was not real and worthy of philosophical consideration? This re-frames a moral fable as evidence for their occult science.
They then pivot to a direct polemic against their contemporary intellectual opponents, dismissing these "newcomers" as lazy, lacking a longing for learning, and shameless. These individuals, burdened by their ignorance, treat the science's believers as liars because they find this path easier. The reader, addressed as "my brother," is admonished not to follow their example or enter into partnership with them. Instead, he should let study be his constant thought and the attaining of reality his objective. His greed should be for the acquisition and comprehension of wisdom, so that he may be happy and successful with the happy people and the martyrs.
Concise Summary
This chapter uses the famous story of Gyges and his ring of invisibility from Plato's Republic as an argument from authority to prove the reality of talismanic magic, reinterpreting the tale's original moral purpose to fit an esoteric framework and admonishing readers to reject skepticism in favor of studying hidden wisdom.
Magic according to the Jews and the Christians
AUTHORITY OF THE TORAH
Having used the Qur'an as their primary authority, the authors now address the reader as "my brother" and turn to the scriptures of other legislators and "people of the book" for further validation of magic's reality. They focus on what is written in the Torah, a text they claim is held in common by both Jews and Christians, who both affirm its validity.
This simplistic view, which presents the Torah as a single, undisputed text existing identically in Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic, is historically inaccurate. It suggests that the authors' knowledge of these traditions was limited and likely derived from Middle Eastern Christian intermediaries rather than direct engagement with Jewish sources. This assertion of a perfectly unified text across languages and communities is seen by modern scholarship as evidence of the Brethren's relative unfamiliarity with the complex textual history of the Old Testament.
THE MAGICAL SHIRT OF ADAM
The first story concerns Esau, son of Isaac, a master of hunting. He was repeatedly challenged to wrestle by the son of Nimrod, son of Canaan. Nimrod's son wore the "shirt of Adam," a powerful talisman that had come from the Garden of Eden and was covered with images of every creature. The shirt operated on the principle of sympathetic magic: whenever the wearer wished to hunt a wild beast, he would put his hand on its image on the shirt, and that animal would become bewildered, stopped, and blind until it was captured.
Since this situation kept on, Esau complained to his father Isaac, who revealed the secret: "This is the shirt of Adam. You shall not win as long as it is on him... take the shirt and come back." Esau went out, threw his opponent to the ground, took the magical shirt, and became a master hunter himself. The authors claim this is a famous narrative known to all who accept the Torah. However, this is a significant misattribution. The story of Adam's magical shirt is not found in the canonical Torah at all; its actual source is the Jewish extra-canonical tradition of the Midrash. Scholars consider this error conclusive evidence that the authors were much less familiar with the Old Testament than with the New.
JACOB'S MASTERY OF SYMPATHETIC MAGIC
A second story is also cited from the Torah, which the authors place in the "second book," the Book of Exodus. This is another misattribution, as the actual source is the Book of Genesis, the first book. The story recounts the agreement between Jacob and his uncle Laban, where Jacob's wages for tending the flocks would be all the red-colored, speckled, and spotted animals.
To increase his remuneration, Jacob took tender rods of almond and plane trees, peeled patterns into their skins, and planted them in the watering streams where the flocks mated. This account, a paraphrase of Genesis 30:25-43, describes a form of folk or sympathetic magic. Jacob influenced the genetics of the flock by having them mate while looking at the speckled patterns of the peeled rods. As a result, the flock brought forth hornless and pied offspring, Jacob's livestock grew more numerous, and he became rich. By presenting this biblical story as an undisputed account from the Torah, the authors use it as another authoritative proof for the reality of sympathetic magic and subtle influences, which they see as analogous to the talismanic arts.
NECROMANCY IN THE BOOKS OF THE KINGS
A final story is drawn from what the authors call the "Books of Annals of the Kings from the Sons of Israel." This is a third misattribution, as this "Book of Annals" is a lost, extra-canonical work merely mentioned within the canonical Book of Kings; the narrative itself is from the First Book of Samuel. The story describes how a prophet named Samuel appointed Saul as king for the Jews. After Samuel died, Saul outlawed magicians and fortune-tellers.
However, when Saul had to face the Philistine army, he was pervaded by fright and could find no comfort. He said to his relatives, "Look for a magician for me," and one suggested a sorceress. He went to her and asked her to revive a prophet from whom he could seek advice. This is a clear account of necromancy, the magical art of communicating with the dead. Saul chose Samuel, and the sorceress—known in biblical tradition as the Witch of Endor—successfully revived his spirit. The resurrected Samuel told him, "Why did you make me return and revive me?... God Most High transferred the kingship to your companion... And you will proceed together with us, tomorrow, amongst the dead." For the authors, the accuracy of this supernaturally-obtained prophecy of doom served as ultimate proof of the reality and power of this form of magic.
Concise Summary
This chapter seeks to validate magic by citing stories from Jewish and Christian scriptures, specifically the tales of Adam's magical shirt, Jacob's use of sympathetic magic on his flocks, and King Saul's necromantic consultation with the spirit of Samuel, despite consistently misattributing the canonical and extra-canonical sources of these narratives.
Magic in the Qur'an
THE QUR'AN AS PROOF OF MAGIC'S REALITY
To validate the reality of magic, authority is sought from the Qur'an, where the topic is mentioned in various places. The Arabic root s-h-r (bewitchment or charm) appears fifty-eight times, primarily in Meccan suras where prophets are accused by detractors of being magicians. The method used is to present a series of quotations from the sacred text as an argument from authority.
In Sūrat al-Baqarah, God says, "It was not Solomon who disbelieved, but the devils disbelieved, teaching people magic and that which was revealed to the two angels at Babylon, Hārūt and Mārūt. But the two angels do not teach anyone unless they say, ‘We are a trial, so do not disbelieve [by practising magic].’ [And yet] they learn from them that by which they cause separation between a man and his wife. But they do not harm anyone through it except by permission of Allah." This verse (Qur'an 2:102) is the indisputable classical proof-text on magic in Islam, establishing its reality through the story of the angels who taught it as a divine test. The power of this magic was such that it could cause the separation of a husband and wife, leaving little doubt about its efficacy. The core argument is that since the Qur'an's validity is absolute, its mention of magic confirms that magic itself is real, regardless of the verse's condemnation of the practice.
MIRACLES MISINTERPRETED AS MAGIC
A common theme throughout the Qur'an is the dismissal of divine miracles by disbelievers, who label them as magic. In Sūrat al-Mā'ida, God recounts restraining the Children of Israel from harming Jesus when he came with clear proofs, yet "those who disbelieved amongst them said, ‘This is not but obvious magic.’"
This pattern continues in Sūrat al-An'ām, where God states, "And even if We had sent down to you, [O Muhammad], a written scripture on a page and they touched it with their hands, the disbelievers would say, ‘This is not but obvious magic.’" In both instances, magic is the default accusation used by skeptics against divine revelation, a reaction which ironically reinforces the perceived reality of magic in that historical context.
MOSES, PHARAOH, AND THE MAGICIANS
The story of Moses confronting Pharaoh's court in Sūrat al-A'rāf provides a detailed account of a confrontation involving magic. When Moses performed miracles, the eminent among Pharaoh's people declared, "‘Indeed, this is a learned magician / Who wants to expel you from your land [through magic], so what do you instruct?’ They said, ‘Postpone [the matter of] him and his brother and send among the cities gatherers / Who will bring you every learned magician.’" The Qur'an’s detailed description of Pharaoh’s response is interpreted as a sign of the genuine importance and power attributed to magic.
The confrontation reaches its climax when Pharaoh’s own magicians recognize the divine source of Moses’s power as superior to their own craft. As the Qur'an states, "And the magicians fell down in prostration [to Allāh]. / They said, ‘We have believed in the Lord of the worlds.’" Despite this, the disbelievers persisted in their skepticism, later saying to Moses, "No matter what sign you bring us with which to bewitch us, we will not be believers in you." By presenting this series of verses, the argument is made that the Qur'an itself affirms the existence and significance of magic. This method is highly selective, using the sacred text to affirm an ontological reality while ignoring the complex moral and theological condemnations of its practice.
Concise Summary
This chapter uses the absolute authority of the Qur'an to affirm the existence and power of magic by selectively quoting verses that mention it—particularly the stories of Hārūt and Mārūt and Moses against Pharaoh's sorcerers—while disregarding the text's overwhelmingly negative judgment on its practice.
Magic with the 'Abbasids: Meeting at al-Ma'mūn's with the Man who Claimed to be a Prophet
AN ASTROLOGICAL INQUIRY AT THE CALIPH'S COURT
This story is attributed almost word-for-word to a work by Abū Maʿshar, the most renowned astrologer of the Islamic Middle Ages. Citing his widely circulated Book of Discussion with Shādān ibn Bahr is a powerful argument from authority, as the authors' own astrological doctrines were heavily indebted to his work. The narrative is presented with a formal chain of transmission to establish its authenticity, featuring famous figures like the mathematician al-Khwārizmī and the senior court astronomer Yaḥyā ibn Manṣūr, placing the event at the court of the 'Abbasid caliph al-Maʾmūn during the Islamic Golden Age.
Yaḥyā ibn Manṣūr reported that he and a group of astrologers arrived at al-Maʾmūn’s court, where they found a man who, unbeknownst to them, claimed to be a prophet. The astrologers went to a courtyard, determined the ascendant for that moment, and provided a sketch of it. The Sun and Moon were aligned in the ascendant, which was Capricorn. All the astrologers present, except for Yaḥyā, said that what the man alleged was valid, because they saw Jupiter—the planet governing the veracity of claims—in a favorable aspect to the ascendant. This version of the astrological chart, however, selectively omits key technical details found in Abū Maʿshar's original text, simplifying the reasoning.
A DISSENTING OPINION AND MAGICAL PROOFS
Yaḥyā ibn Manṣūr, however, dissented from the majority. He said that while there was some validity to the matter, it was not the kind the man sought, as it was neither fulfilled nor properly ordered. His more subtle reading looked beyond the obvious indicators and perceived that the claim was corrupted by the influence of Venus and Mercury, planets which in this context indicated "a variety of hocus-pocus and the livelihood of imposture."
The caliph then revealed the man’s claim: "This man alleges he is a prophet!" Yaḥyā asked if he had any proof. The alleged prophet described two objects with magical properties: "I have a ring with two stones. I wear it and nothing changes with me, but if anyone else wears it, he will start laughing and will not master his laugh until he removes it. I have a Syrian pen: I take it and I [can] write with it, but if anyone else takes it, his finger will be paralysed."
THE TRIUMPH OF SCIENCE OVER PROPHECY
Yaḥyā immediately declared that these effects were brought about by Venus and Mercury. Al-Maʾmūn ordered the man to demonstrate his proofs, and he did so. It became clear that the effects were real, but they were a remedy obtained with talismans, not divine miracles. Yaḥyā’s astrological insight was confirmed: the ring, an object of beauty and adornment, was linked to Venus, while the pen, an instrument of writing, was linked to Mercury. The central purpose of the story is to demonstrate this direct, observable link between astrological science and the efficacy of practical, natural magic.
The man renounced his claim of prophecy and described the tricks he had used for the ring and the pen. Al-Maʾmūn then presented him with 1,000 dīnārs, and he was later acknowledged as one of the most savant people in the science of the stars. The authors deliberately omit the final lines from Abū Maʿshar's original account, in which Abū Maʿshar himself gives a definitive astrological ruling that the claim was entirely false. This selective editing serves the authors' goal: not to invalidate the man, but to use the authority of the caliph's court to prove that talismanic magic is a real and powerful science, inextricably linked to astrology.
Concise Summary
This chapter recounts a story from the court of Caliph al-Maʾmūn, sourced from the famous astrologer Abū Maʿshar, in which a man claiming prophecy is exposed as a skilled magician, thereby using the authority of the 'Abbasid court to validate talismanic magic as a real science linked to astrology.
Magic with the Şābi'ans, the Harrānians, and the Hanīfs
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The most recent inheritors of the sciences of talismans and their effects were the ancient Greeks. These believers in esoteric traditions were known by various names, including Sābi’ans, Harrānians, and Hanīfs. These distinct historical identities were often amalgamated into a single, idealized group of star-worshippers, inhabitants of the Mesopotamian city of Harrān, and pre-Islamic monotheists. This tradition took the roots of its sciences from the Babylonians, a reference to Chaldean astral cults, and from the Egyptians, associated with the Hermetic tradition.
The ancient chiefs of this lineage were four figures: Agathodaimon, Hermes, Homer, and Aratus. Agathodaimon and Hermes were widely considered the principal prophets of the Harrānian Sābi’ans, while the Greek poet Aratus was likely included due to his influential astronomical poem, the Phaenomena. It was believed that their followers then divided into four groups: the Pythagoreans, the Aristotelians, the Platonists, and the Epicureans. This view, however, is considered ahistorical, presenting these major philosophical schools not as distinct developments but as mere offshoots of a single, primordial esoteric doctrine.
PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES
Adherents to this tradition allege that the world is finite in its dimension because it is spherical. They claim it has no beginning to its existence, but is instead dependent on the Creator, much like an effect is dependent on its cause. This Neoplatonic cosmology posits an eternal world connected to a transcendent God through intermediaries like the Universal Intellect and Soul, aligning the belief with monotheism by avoiding pagan notions of divine incarnation. The phenomena of the terrestrial world are said to occur through four things: Matter, Souls, the impulse from the celestial world, and the preservation of all beings by the supreme divinity. This framework describes a system of astral influence where divine power flows through planetary spheres and spiritual beings to animate the sublunary world.
These spiritual beings, or souls, are called divine and are divided into two kinds. The first kind is inherently good, and its individuals are called angels. The second kind is inherently bad, and its individuals are called devils. This classification justifies magical rituals designed to attract good influences and repel evil ones. Other souls are linked to the stars, while some are linked to bodies. After death, these embodied souls pass to the "Sea of Ta'ūs" (Peacock), identified with the sphere of ether, where they suffer chastisement in a state of purgatory between reincarnations. The path of these souls can be known by pondering their character traits; upon death, a person is transported toward the species that best preserves their dominant moral quality, a doctrine of reincarnation that parallels Plato's Myth of Er in the Republic. These doctrinal points are presented specifically to validate the practice of magic and talismans, drawing from a genre of occult literature known as the "Book of Properties."
THE EIGHTY-SEVEN TEMPLES
The core justification for astral magic and temple worship is the necessity to get closer to the stars and souls to repair what is corrupt within us. The goals are twofold: achieving a good life in this world and mastering freedom in the afterlife through the purification of the soul. The theory of magic holds that success requires harmonizing two principles: "nature," which is the fixed astrological influence of the stars, and "volition," which is the focused intent of the magician expressed through ritual.
Practitioners considered which cities were allotted to a certain star and waited for that star to be in a position of astrological dignity. At that elected time, they would begin constructing a temple for that star in the designated city. In this way, they completed a total of eighty-seven temples. This specific number is unique, though it may be connected to the list of astrological "lots" or "parts" described by the astrologer Abū Ma'shar.
THE TEMPLE OF JIRJĀS
A special temple was also made at a time when all the planets were in their positions of dignity, making it a uniquely powerful microcosm of celestial power. Inside, they manufactured an image for each of the seven planets, worked from an appropriate material: the Sun with gold, the Moon with silver, Saturn with iron, Jupiter with quicksilver, Mars with copper, Venus with tin, and Mercury with lead. This specific list of planetary metals, with its unusual associations for Saturn and Mars, is also found in the famous grimoire known as the Picatrix (Ghāyat al-hakīm).
On each image was a censer with a distinct incense, such as aloeswood for the Sun, saffron for Venus, and mastic for Mercury, a standard feature of theurgic rites intended to create sympathetic resonance with the invoked power. It is in this temple that young men and maidens are initiated into their religion and where cocks are sacrificed, a ritual element symbolic of light's victory over darkness.
THE INITIATION RITUAL
During the rite, the chief of the priests enters a sealed, dark hall oriented to the north and invokes a powerful chthonic being: "O Jirjās amongst the Jirjās, Iblis amongst the Iblis, great amongst the devils and august amongst all jinn." He sacrifices a cock, described as an enemy, as an offering to this entity. The initiate is undressed and walks backward into the hall, accompanied by a guarantor. The priest administers an oath of secrecy sworn upon the initiate's head.
The guarantor then steps forward and offers the cock as a ransom and substitute for the initiate, a widespread ritual motif. Finally, an iron ring is heated and used to brand the surface of the initiate’s right thumb ninety-nine times, a number that syncretically evokes the ninety-nine names of God in Islam, marking the person permanently. While this secret ceremony occurs, the crowd of people remains outside burning their own offerings: various animals for the angels, and cocks for Jirjās. This practice is audaciously linked to Socrates' famous last words in Plato’s Phaedo—"Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius"—thereby reinterpreting a key moment in philosophy to fit this esoteric narrative.
THE SECRETS
This tradition possesses two categories of secret speeches, one called "the secret of the men" and the other "the secret of the women," both of which are longer than the sūras of the Qur'an. It is claimed that if the words of these two texts are scattered and then reordered in a specific way, with every word of one placed between two terms of the other, several new combinations arise. This process of letter and word magic (sīmiyā') reveals the canons and demonstrations of four great sciences: Medicine, Alchemy, Astrology, and Talismans.
This complex method serves as a metaphor for the synthesis of different branches of knowledge to unlock a higher, unified truth. It is therefore fitting that this science be safeguarded from those who do not deserve it. The text warns that if a vulgar or unqualified person were to learn the secrets of magic, the outcome would be like the case of the shepherd Gyges, who killed the king and seized the kingdom without being qualified for it. This reinforces the central theme that esoteric knowledge is dangerous in the wrong hands, justifying a hierarchical and secretive model of education.
THE KĀDHĀ FEAST
To this day, followers go out on the twentieth day of Nīsān each year for the feast of Kādhā to expect the advent of an idol. This account has a near-verbatim parallel in Ibn al-Nadīm's Fihrist, suggesting they drew upon a common source. The tradition adds a comparison not found elsewhere, likening the Sābi'an waiting for the idol to the Jewish waiting for the Messiah, thus framing the pagan practice within a familiar Abrahamic paradigm of eschatological expectation.
A direct link exists between this public feast and the secret initiation ritual: the left wing of the cock sacrificed in the Temple of Jirjās is preserved and attached to the bellies of pregnant women and the necks of young men as a protective amulet.
CONCLUDING NOTE
These stories and indications serve to rectify views on and legitimize the sciences of the stars, magic, and talismans. Rather than providing further logical proofs for these claims, the reader is directed to the books of the ancients and the philosophers, where the exposition and demonstration of their validity are said to be freely available to any dedicated seeker.
Concise Summary
This chapter details the history, doctrines, and secret rituals of a syncretic tradition of astral magic attributed to the Sābi'ans, arguing for its legitimacy as a powerful esoteric science inherited from Greek, Babylonian, and Egyptian antiquity that must be safeguarded from the unqualified.
Spells, Incantations, and the Evil Eye
THE ANALOGY OF PHYSICAL AND PSYCHIC INFLUENCES
The power of spells, incantations, intuition, and incitement is made plain by observing their effects, just as the effects of remedies and drugs on bodies are observable. This argument from analogy grounds claims about the unseen world of souls in the accepted realities of the natural world. Testifying to this principle of influence are the known effects of certain substances, such as the magnetic stone and its attraction for iron, which demonstrates action at a distance.
Other examples include the attraction of scammony for yellow bile and the stone of Armenia for black bile, in line with humoral theory. Folk medicine provides further proof with the use of the "tail of the wolf" plant for colics and the peony as a magical protection against the infant-attacking demon Umm al-Sibyān. The poisonous nature of the sea-hare, which ulcerates the lung, also confirms that substances have inherent, powerful effects. Those who have applied themselves to experimenting have observed these matters, which are documented in the "Books of Properties" (Kutub al-Khawāss), a genre of alchemical and occult literature detailing the hidden properties of things. This frames the science of spells as being based on both empirical observation and ancient wisdom.
THE RATIONAL SOUL'S POWER OVER THE SELF
The same principle of influence applies to the psychic realm. Adopting the Platonic model of a tripartite soul, it is understood that the rational soul, located in the head, has the power to tame and break the two lower, "bestial" souls—the irascible soul in the heart and the appetitive soul in the liver. This philosophical psychology connects directly to Islamic ethics, particularly the goal of reforming character traits, and to Mu'tazilite theology concerning divine reward and punishment in the afterlife.
This internal psychic action is demonstrated when the rational virtue of temperance subjugates the passion of anger, or when abstinence overcomes carnal appetite. These examples show the rational soul’s power to govern the self through willed action, as recorded in the books of both philosophers and religion.
THE TAMING OF ANIMALS THROUGH SPECIFIC SIGNS
The influence of the rational soul extends beyond the self to the taming of animals. The primary mechanism for this is the zajr, or incitement. The effects of specific sounds on animals, such as whistling for horses and cows at their time of drinking, or the chanting of a caravan leader for camels, are not mere conventions. Rather, each genus and species of animal is tamed by a distinct "sign" that is specific to it and influences it according to its innate nature. This theory naturalizes magic and spells, presenting them as a form of psychic physics where specific sounds act upon souls in the same way drugs act upon bodies.
THE EVIL EYE AND PROPHETIC TRADITION
Spells, charms, and incantations are defined as subtle spiritual influences from a rational soul that can affect the bestial soul common to all animals. In its most extreme form, this influence can kill, an effect known as an "affliction by the evil eye" (al-'ayn). This projection from one soul to another is real, though subtle, and is compared to spiritual sparks flying from a fire that can burn another substance.
While skeptics deny magic because it has been corrupted by liars and the ignorant, its reality is perceived by true sages and certain peoples, like those of India, who possess heightened intuition. To cement the argument, the highest authorities are invoked. It is reported that the Prophet Muhammad said, "Magic is a reality and the evil eye is a reality," a well-known hadith. It is also reported that the Prophet himself was bewitched by a Jewish magician, a charm which was later found and removed from a well. In a final syncretic move, the Messiah is also cited. It is reported that he passed by no stone, tree, or other thing without addressing it, demonstrating the ultimate power of a purified sage to know the inner realities of all created things and influence them directly with speech.
Concise Summary
This chapter argues for the reality of psychic influences like spells and the evil eye by drawing an analogy to the known occult properties of natural substances, explaining them through a philosophical model of the soul's power, and grounding this belief in the authority of Islamic and other prophetic traditions.
FINAL PRAYER AND DEDICATION
The work ends with a communal prayer, a common feature in medieval Islamic texts. The supplication includes the reader, the authors ("ourselves"), and "all our noble brethren," asking for God's help and success in what satisfies Him. The prayer is that all may reach their aimed-for goal and attain the utmost point of what they had wished for: spiritual and intellectual "perfection."
Praise is given to God, from the authors and all their brethren, forever and ever. The text concludes with the declaration that God "is our measure. What an excellent aid [is He] in what regards the Book." This final mention of "the Book" (al-Kitāb) is a multivalent reference. While it can refer to the authors' own completed corpus of epistles, it more powerfully alludes to the Qur'an itself, which was often carried as a protective talisman. This final phrase, an adaptation from Qur'an 7:128, serves to ground their entire monumental work in the ultimate authority of divine revelation.
Verse 7:128: Divine Inheritance 7:128a: قَالَ مُوسَىٰ لِقَوْمِهِ Moses said to his people (ক্ব-লা মূসা- লিক্বাওমিহী; q-w-l / ক-ও-ল – to say // qāla // Cognate: Hebrew: qôl "voice, sound" ; q-w-m / ক-ও-ম – to stand, people // qawm // Cognate: Aramaic: qum "to stand") 7:128b: اسْتَعِينُوا بِاللَّهِ Seek help in Allah (ইস্তা'ঈনূ বিল্লা-হি; ʿ-w-n / ʿ-ও-ন – to help, aid // istaʿīnū // Cognate: Hebrew: ʿôn "strength, vigor" ; ʾ-l-h / ʾ-ল-হ – god, deity // Allāh // Cognate: Syriac: Alāhā "God") 7:128c: وَاصْبِرُوا and be patient (ওয়াসবিরূ; ṣ-b-r / স-ব-র – to be patient, endure // ṣbirū // Cognate: Ge'ez: ṣabara "he endured") 7:128d: إِنَّ الْأَرْضَ لِلَّهِ Indeed, the earth belongs to Allah (ইন্নাল্ আরদ্বা লিল্লা-হি; ʾ-r-ḍ / ʾ-র-ḍ – earth, land // ʾarḍ // Cognate: Akkadian: erṣetu "earth") 7:128e: يُورِثُهَا مَن يَشَآءُ He gives it as inheritance to whom He wills (ইয়ূরিছুহা- মাইঁ ইয়াশা~উ; w-r-th / ও-র-থ – to inherit // yūrithu // Cognate: Hebrew: yāraš "to inherit" ; sh-y-ʾ / শ-য়-ʾ – to will, want // yashāʾu // Cognate: Aramaic: šay "thing, will") 7:128f: مِنْ عِبَادِهِ from His servants (মিন্ 'ইবা-দিহী; ʿ-b-d / ʿ-ব-দ – to serve, worship // ʿibād // Cognate: Ugaritic: ʿbd "servant") 7:128g: وَالْعَاقِبَةُ لِلْمُتَّقِينَ and the [best] outcome is for the God-conscious (ওয়াল্ 'আ-ক্বিবাতু লিল্মুত্তাক্বীন; ʿ-q-b / ʿ-ক-ব – to follow, outcome // ʿāqibah // Cognate: Hebrew: ʿāqēḇ "heel, end" ; w-q-y / ও-ক-য় – to guard, be pious // muttaqīn // Cognate: Ge'ez: waqaya "he kept safe")
Tafsīr 7:128: This verse encapsulates Moses's counsel to the Israelites facing Pharaoh's tyranny, urging them to seek divine aid (istiʿānah) and exercise patient perseverance (ṣabr). Classical exegetes like Ibn Kathīr contextualize this as a direct response to Pharaoh’s threats, establishing that ultimate sovereignty over the earth (al-arḍ) belongs solely to God, Who grants it as an inheritance to whomever He wills. This theme of divine inheritance is a Qur'ānic cornerstone, explicitly echoed in 21:105, "My righteous servants shall inherit the earth," and the virtues required are underscored in 3:200, "O you who have believed, persevere and endure and remain stationed and fear Allah," with the final victory crystallized in 11:49, "Indeed, the [best] outcome is for the God-conscious." The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ reinforced this principle, stating, "Know that victory comes with patience, relief with affliction, and ease with hardship" (Musnad Aḥmad), framing steadfastness as the key to deliverance. Revealed to strengthen the early Muslims, this verse's message finds profound parallels in the Hebrew Bible's core promise of the land as a divine inheritance (yerushah) to the faithful, as in Genesis 15:7 and Psalm 37:9, "those who hope in the LORD will inherit the land." This concept is spiritually re-framed in the New Testament Beatitude of Matthew 5:5, "Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth," shifting the focus from terrestrial dominion to a spiritual reward for the virtuous, akin to the Qur'anic emphasis on taqwā.