The Hasmonean Dynasty
ORIGINS OF THE DYNASTY
The Hasmonean dynasty was a Jewish ruling family in Judea during the Hellenistic Second Temple period, originating from a priestly family descended from Joarib and, more anciently, Phinehas. The family name, Hasmonean, derives from an ancestor named Asmoneus, the great-grandfather of Mattathias, though little else is known of him. Information about the dynasty comes primarily from the books of 1 and 2 Maccabees, which cover the period from 175 to 134 BCE, and the historical works of Josephus, who chronicled the dynasty's later expansion and decline.
In the centuries following the Babylonian captivity, the lands of Israel and Judah were successively occupied by the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and Alexander the Great’s Macedonian empires. After Alexander's death, the region became a contested territory between the Seleucid Empire based in Syria and the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, with Jerusalem changing hands seven times between 319 and 302 BCE. In 200 BCE, the Seleucid king Antiochus III defeated the Ptolemies at the Battle of Panium, securing final control over Judea. Seleucid rule introduced Hellenistic cultural and religious practices, creating a deep schism within Jewish society between traditionalists and those who embraced Hellenization.
This cultural conflict intensified when the high priest Jason converted Jerusalem into a Greek polis with a gymnasium in 175 BCE, a move that deeply offended traditionalists. Hellenized Jews even engaged in non-surgical foreskin restoration to avoid the social stigma of circumcision while exercising nude in the gymnasium, a common Hellenistic practice. Tensions escalated into a brief civil war over the high priesthood.
THE SELEUCID OPPRESSION AND MACCABEAN REVOLT
The situation reached a crisis under the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Humiliated by the Roman Republic, which forced him to withdraw from a successful invasion of Egypt in 168 BCE, Antiochus asserted stricter control over Judea. After quelling a rumored rebellion in Jerusalem, he sacked the city and its Temple. He then launched a brutal persecution, outlawing Jewish religious practices such as Sabbath observance, sacrifices, circumcision, and the possession of Jewish scriptures on pain of death. He compelled Jews to sacrifice to idols and desecrated the Temple by erecting an idol of Zeus on the Temple Mount. While his motives are debated—whether anger, a response to revolt, or encouragement from radical Hellenizers—the result was a direct assault on the Jewish religion.
In the rural village of Modi'in, a priest named Mattathias ben Johanan, from the Hasmonean family, sparked a rebellion. When a Greek official ordered the villagers to offer a pagan sacrifice, Mattathias refused. Upon seeing another Jew step forward to comply, Mattathias killed both the man and the official, issuing a call to arms: “Let everyone who is zealous for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!” He and his five sons—Judas Maccabeus, Eleazar Avaran, Simon Thassi, John Gaddi, and Jonathan Apphus—fled to the wilderness of Judea and began organizing a guerrilla force.
Refusing to fight on the Sabbath initially led to the massacre of a thousand followers. Afterward, Mattathias and his supporters decreed that defensive warfare on the Sabbath was permissible. After leading the revolt for a year, Mattathias died around 166 BCE, appointing his son Simon as counselor and his son Judas, a man of great valor and military talent, as the new commander.
Judas, who earned the surname Maccabee (likely meaning “the Hammer”), avoided direct engagement with the superior Seleucid army, instead employing guerrilla tactics that created a sense of insecurity among them. He achieved a series of early victories, defeating and killing Apollonius, governor of Samaria, and then routing a larger army under Seron near Beth-Horon. In the Battle of Emmaus, he outmaneuvered and defeated a significant Seleucid force led by Nicanor and Gorgias. These successes prompted the Seleucid viceroy Lysias to march on Judea with a larger army.
Despite a setback at the Battle of Beth Zechariah, internal political troubles within the Seleucid Empire following the death of Antiochus IV forced Lysias to negotiate a peace. In late 164 BCE, Judas entered Jerusalem, purified the defiled Temple, and restored the worship of God. This rededication is commemorated by the festival of Hanukkah. Following further campaigns to protect Jewish communities in Gilead, Transjordan, and Galilee, Judah laid siege to the Seleucid fortress in Jerusalem, the Acra. His continued success led him to send a diplomatic party to Rome to establish a league of friendship. However, the new Seleucid king, Demetrius I Soter, sent a large army under General Bacchides to crush the revolt. At the Battle of Elasa in 160 BCE, Judas’s outnumbered forces were defeated, and he was killed in the fighting.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DYNASTY
After Judas's death, his brother Jonathan Apphus was chosen as the new leader. He and his followers retreated east of the Jordan River, continuing their guerrilla campaign against Seleucid forces. After a period of conflict, Bacchides withdrew from Judea in 159 BCE, and for five years Jonathan settled in Michmash, governing the people and clearing the land of apostates. A turning point came when a succession crisis erupted in the Seleucid Empire. Both the reigning king Demetrius I and the challenger Alexander Balas courted Jonathan's loyalty. Demetrius permitted him to raise an army, while Balas offered him the official appointment as High Priest. Jonathan accepted Balas’s offer, and in 152 BCE, he became the first of the Hasmonean dynasty to hold the office, solidifying his role as the religious and political leader of his people.
Jonathan skillfully navigated the shifting politics of the Seleucid civil war, expanding his authority and territory. After defeating the general Apollonius, Balas rewarded him with the city of Ekron. When Demetrius II Nicator overthrew Balas, Jonathan initially supported him, securing tax exemptions for Judea. However, when Demetrius failed to keep his promises, Jonathan and his brother Simon sided with the new challenger, Antiochus VI. Simon was appointed strategos (military governor) of the sea coast, and together the brothers conquered Ashkelon and Gaza and defeated Demetrius II's forces. Jonathan even renewed the treaty with the Roman Republic. His success, however, led to his downfall. In 143 BCE, the general Diodotus Tryphon, who was using Antiochus VI for his own ambitions, lured Jonathan into a trap at Ptolemais, captured him, and later executed him.
Simon Thassi, the last surviving son of Mattathias, assumed leadership. In 142 BCE, he secured full political independence from the Seleucids, and a great assembly in 141 BCE proclaimed him High Priest, military commander, and Ethnarch (Prince) of Israel, establishing the Hasmonean dynasty. This new status was recognized by the Roman Senate around 139 BCE. Simon captured the last Seleucid stronghold in Jerusalem, the Acra, and ruled in peace and prosperity until 135 BCE, when he and two of his sons were assassinated at a banquet by his son-in-law Ptolemy.
THE KINGDOM AT ITS ZENITH
Simon's third son, John Hyrcanus, survived the assassination and assumed leadership as High Priest and Ethnarch from 134 to 104 BCE. Early in his reign, he withstood a siege of Jerusalem by the Seleucid king Antiochus VII, paying a heavy tribute to spare the city. However, with the steady collapse of the Seleucid Empire, Hyrcanus seized the opportunity to assert full independence. Around 110 BCE, he began a series of military conquests, capturing territories in Transjordan, Samaria (where he destroyed the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim), and Idumea. He notably forced the Idumeans to convert to Judaism, an unprecedented policy. His coins, inscribed "Yohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews," suggest he shared power with a governing assembly. Toward the end of his life, he had a falling out with the Pharisees and sided with their rivals, the Sadducees.
Upon his death in 104 BCE, his eldest son, Aristobulus I, imprisoned his mother and brothers and became the first Hasmonean to take the Greek title basileus (king), combining it with the office of High Priest. His reign was brief, lasting only a year, during which he conquered and Judaized a portion of the Ituraean nation in Galilee. He died of a painful illness in 103 BCE.
His widow, Salome Alexandra, released his brothers from prison, and the eldest of them, Alexander Jannaeus, ascended the throne, ruling as king and High Priest from 103 to 76 BCE. His reign was marked by near-constant warfare and territorial expansion, conquering the entire Mediterranean coast and large areas of Transjordan, bringing the kingdom to its greatest extent. His reliance on foreign mercenaries, brutal tactics, and support for the Sadducees led to widespread opposition from the Pharisees. This animosity erupted into a bloody six-year civil war after he mockingly poured a water libation on his feet during the Feast of Tabernacles. The war, in which he faced a coalition of Pharisees and the Seleucid king Demetrius III, ended with his victory and the crucifixion of 800 of his opponents in Jerusalem. He died while besieging the fortress of Ragaba.
CIVIL WAR AND ROMAN INTERVENTION
Before his death, Alexander Jannaeus entrusted the government to his wife, Salome Alexandra, who reigned as queen regnant from 76 to 67 BCE, a period remembered as a golden age of peace and prosperity. She reconciled with the Pharisees, whose leader Simeon ben Shetach was her brother, and appointed her elder, more placid son, Hyrcanus II, as High Priest.
Her death in 67 BCE triggered a devastating war of succession. Hyrcanus II, supported by the Pharisees, was the designated heir, but his ambitious younger brother, Aristobulus II, backed by the Sadducees and military leaders, immediately rebelled. Aristobulus defeated Hyrcanus near Jericho, forcing him to renounce the throne and high priesthood. This settlement was short-lived. Antipater the Idumean, a wealthy and influential advisor to Hyrcanus, persuaded him to flee and seek the help of King Aretas III of the Nabataeans. Aretas, promised the return of towns the Hasmoneans had conquered, marched on Jerusalem and besieged Aristobulus in the Temple.
At this moment, the Roman general Pompey the Great arrived in Syria to annex the remnants of the Seleucid Empire. Both brothers appealed to him for support. In 63 BCE, after weighing his options, Pompey sided with Hyrcanus, seeing him as a weaker and more reliable client. When Aristobulus resisted, Pompey besieged and captured Jerusalem, ending Jewish independence. Pompey famously entered the Holy of Holies, and Judea became a Roman client state. He stripped the kingdom of its conquered territories, restored Hyrcanus II as High Priest and Ethnarch but not king, and took Aristobulus II and his sons to Rome as prisoners.
THE DYNASTY'S FINAL YEARS
Effective power in Judea now lay with Antipater, who was appointed by Julius Caesar as the first Roman Procurator. Antipater appointed his own sons to positions of influence: Phasael as governor of Jerusalem and Herod (later the Great) as governor of Galilee. The Hasmoneans became pawns in Rome’s civil wars. After Aristobulus II and his son Alexander were killed by Pompey's supporters, Antipater and Hyrcanus sided with Caesar. After Caesar's assassination and Antipater's subsequent murder, a new opportunity arose for the Hasmoneans.
In 40 BCE, taking advantage of a Parthian invasion of Syria, Aristobulus II’s last surviving son, Mattathias Antigonus, allied with the invaders. The Parthians conquered Jerusalem, captured Hyrcanus II, and mutilated his ears to render him ineligible for the high priesthood. Antigonus was installed as the last Hasmonean king and High Priest.
His reign was short. Antipater's son Herod fled to Rome, where the Senate, at the urging of Mark Antony, declared him "King of the Jews." With Roman military support, Herod returned to Judea and waged a three-year war against Antigonus. In 37 BCE, Herod captured Jerusalem, and Antigonus was delivered to Antony and executed, marking the end of Hasmonean rule.
To legitimize his own reign, Herod married the Hasmonean princess Mariamne, a granddaughter of both Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. However, consumed by jealousy and fear, he systematically eliminated the remaining Hasmoneans. He had Mariamne's brother, the young and popular High Priest Aristobulus III, drowned at a banquet in 36 BCE. He later executed the elderly Hyrcanus II in 30 BCE on a charge of treason. Ultimately, he even executed Mariamne herself and their two sons, Aristobulus IV and Alexander, ensuring that no Hasmonean rival could challenge his Herodian dynasty.
Concise Summary
The Hasmonean dynasty, born from the Maccabean Revolt against Hellenistic oppression, established an independent Jewish kingdom that expanded to its greatest extent before collapsing into a self-destructive civil war, which led directly to Roman conquest and the dynasty's final extermination by Herod the Great. This century of sovereignty, from religious rebellion to royal ambition and tragic downfall, left a profound legacy of Jewish nationalism and religious identity that persisted long after its end.
City of Antioch on the Orontes
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND EARLY HISTORY Antioch was situated in a strategic plain where several key trade routes from the Mediterranean and Anatolia converged. Routes through the Orontes River gorge and the Belen Pass met roads coming from Commagene, the Euphrates crossings, and the Syrian steppe, creating a single major route that proceeded south.
Before the city's formal establishment, the area was home to a settlement called Meroe, which featured a shrine to the goddess Anat. On a spur of Mount Silpius, a village named Io, or Iopolis, existed, which later inhabitants used to claim connections to the Attic Ionians. Another archaic village, Bottia, was mentioned by the chronicler John Malalas as existing in the plain by the river.
HELLENISTIC FOUNDATION AND EXPANSION According to the 4th-century orator Libanius, Alexander the Great camped at the site and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus. Following Alexander's death, his general Seleucus I Nicator gained control of Syria after the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC. In May of 300 BC, Seleucus founded Antioch, one of four "sister cities" in the region, naming it in honor of his father, Antiochus. Legend holds that the site was chosen when an eagle, a bird of Zeus, carried a piece of sacrificial meat to the location.
The original city was laid out by the architect Xenarius with a grid plan emulating Alexandria. It was positioned on the low ground north of Mount Silpius, with its citadel on the mountain itself and two great colonnaded streets intersecting at its center. Subsequent rulers expanded the city: Antiochus I Soter added a second walled area, Seleucus II Callinicus built a third on an island in the Orontes, and Antiochus IV Epiphanes added a fourth quarter, after which Antioch became known as a Tetrapolis (four cities). The entire area, measuring about six kilometers from west to east, included numerous large gardens. The population was a mix of local settlers, Athenians from nearby Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews, who were granted full status from the city's inception.
About six kilometers west lay the lush park of Daphne, famous for its woods, waters, and a grand temple to the Pythian Apollo, which was founded by Seleucus I. Antioch became the capital of the western Seleucid Empire after 240 BC and was known as a populous city of erudite men and liberal studies, though few names from this period have survived. The city's external appearance was impressive, earning it the epithet "Golden," but it frequently required restoration due to earthquakes, the first major recorded one occurring in 148 BC. The populace was often involved in the turbulent politics of the Seleucid dynasty, rising in rebellion on several occasions and eventually petitioning Rome to annex Syria in 64 BC, at which point Antioch became a free city (civitas libera) within the Roman Republic.
THE ROMAN ERA: AN EASTERN CAPITAL Roman emperors viewed Antioch as a potential eastern capital, superior to Alexandria due to its location, and lavished it with attention. Julius Caesar confirmed its freedom in 47 BC, a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was built, and a Roman forum was laid out. Tiberius added long colonnades, while Agrippa and Trajan expanded the theater. Antoninus Pius paved the main east-west artery with granite, and numerous baths and aqueducts were constructed, including a fine one by Hadrian. King Herod contributed a long portico (stoa), and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa encouraged a new suburb. By the time of Strabo, Antioch's population was comparable to Alexandria's, with estimates ranging from 200,000 to over 500,000 inhabitants at its peak. A massive hippodrome, capable of holding 80,000 spectators, and a grand imperial palace were among its most famous structures.
The city was a center of international exchange. Around 13 AD, Zarmanochegas, an Indian monk, met Nicholas of Damascus there while on a mission to Emperor Augustus. In 19 AD, the Roman general Germanicus died in Antioch and was cremated in the forum. The city endured earthquakes in 37 AD and again during the next reign. In 71 AD, Emperor Titus visited and rejected demands from the populace to expel the Jewish community or revoke their rights, which were inscribed on bronze tablets. A massive earthquake in 115 AD occurred while Emperor Trajan was visiting, forcing him to take shelter in the circus for days; he and his successors rebuilt the city, though its population was reduced. Later, in 256 AD, the city was raided and burned by the Persian king Shapur I, who killed or deported a vast number of its inhabitants before the Romans recaptured it the following year.
THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY Antioch was a pivotal center for early Christianity, and it was here that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians." The city's large Jewish population, living in a quarter called the Kerateion, attracted the earliest missionaries. According to tradition, Saint Peter was among them, establishing a patriarchal see that five modern churches still claim as their heritage. The city became the seat of one of the five original patriarchates of the Church, alongside Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Alexandria. Between 252 and 300 AD, ten church councils were held in Antioch. Emperor Constantine began construction of the city's Great Church, the Domus Aurea, in 327 AD. The writer John Chrysostom noted that during the time of Bishop Ignatius, the free adult population was 200,000, and in his own time (late 4th century), there were 100,000 Christians in the city.
IMPERIAL DECLINE AND THE BYZANTINE PERIOD Emperor Julian's visit in 362 AD was fraught with tension. He arrived during a public lament for Adonis, an ominous start to his stay. His attempt to revive the oracle of Apollo at Daphne by ordering the removal of the bones of the martyr Saint Babylas resulted in a massive Christian procession. When the temple later burned down, Julian suspected Christian arson and briefly closed the city's Great Church. He criticized the city's councilmen for their unwillingness to manage a food shortage and was dismayed by the decay of pagan worship. The Antiochenes, in turn, resented Julian for the burden of his billeted troops and mocked his severe methods and pointed beard. His successor, Valens, endowed the city with a new forum and reopened the Great Church.
In 387, a tax revolt led to the city losing its metropolitan status. Under Theodosius, Antioch was placed under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. In 490 or 491, violent anti-Jewish riots broke out, resulting in massacres and the destruction of synagogues. The city's decline accelerated with catastrophic earthquakes in 526 and 528. Emperor Justinian I restored many buildings and renamed the city Theopolis ("City of God"), but its former glory was lost. In 540, the Persian king Khosrow I sacked the city again, deporting its population. Another earthquake in 588 destroyed the Great Church. In 613, during the Byzantine-Sasanian War, the city fell to the Persians. Throughout this era, Antioch was home to a distinct school of Christian thought emphasizing literal scriptural interpretation, led by figures like Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia.
ARAB AND BYZANTINE CONTESTATION In 637, Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate at the Battle of the Iron Bridge. Under the Umayyad Caliphate, it served as a key administrative and military center on the frontier with the Byzantine Empire, a position that led to a gradual decline over the next 350 years. The city thrived again as a commercial hub under the Abbasid dynasty, which facilitated trade with Byzantium. In 969, the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas recaptured Antioch. It became the seat of a military governor (doux) and the supreme commander of the imperial forces on the eastern frontier. The city was held by Philaretos Brachamios until 1084, when it was captured by the Seljuk Turks.
THE CRUSADER PRINCIPALITY OF ANTIOCH The armies of the First Crusade besieged and conquered Antioch in 1098. Under its new Latin rulers, the city experienced a revival as a trade hub. Tancred, as regent for Bohemond I, expanded the principality's territory but refused to honor the Treaty of Devol, which would have made Antioch a vassal of the Byzantine Empire. A series of rulers and regents followed, including Roger of Salerno, Baldwin II of Jerusalem, Bohemond II, and Raymond of Poitiers. The principality was often in conflict with both its Muslim neighbors and the Byzantine emperors, who repeatedly tried to reassert their authority. During the Second Crusade, Louis VII of France visited but declined to help defend the city.
Rule passed to Constance and her husband Raynald of Châtillon, whose attack on Byzantine Cyprus provoked Emperor Manuel I Comnenus to march on Antioch and establish himself as its suzerain in 1158. After Raynald's capture by Muslims, Constance's son Bohemond III became ruler. The city remained neutral during the Third Crusade. Following Bohemond III's death, a 15-year power struggle ensued between his son Bohemond IV and his grandson Raymond-Roupen, who was supported by the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Eventually, the principality declined and became a vassal of Armenia. Bohemond VI allied with the Mongols against the Muslims, but this alliance could not save the city. In 1268, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured Antioch, breaking his promise to spare the inhabitants. He razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population and effectively ending the Latin presence in northern Syria.
MAMLUK AND OTTOMAN RULE After the Mamluk conquest, Antioch was left in ruins. By 1432, only about 300 houses remained inhabited, mostly by Turcomans. In 1516, the city was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire as part of the province of Aleppo. In the 19th century, it was the military headquarters for Ibrahim Pasha during the Egyptian occupation of Syria.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL LEGACY Today, few traces of the great ancient city remain visible, aside from massive fortification walls, aqueducts, and the Church of St. Peter, a cave church believed to have been a meeting place for the earliest Christians. Most of the Roman city lies buried under sediment from the Orontes River. Archaeological excavations conducted between 1932 and 1939 by a consortium of museums and universities failed to find the city's major public buildings but unearthed a vast collection of high-quality Roman mosaics from private villas and baths. These mosaics, depicting mythological scenes, animals, and daily life, are now housed primarily in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya and at sponsoring institutions like Princeton University. The city's civic symbol was the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch, a majestic statue of a crowned goddess with the river god Orontes at her feet. More recently, in 2016, a 3rd-century BC mosaic of a skeleton with a wine pitcher was discovered, bearing the inscription, "Be cheerful, enjoy your life."
Concise Summary Antioch on the Orontes rose from a Hellenistic foundation to become a vast, influential metropolis of the Roman Empire and a cradle of early Christianity, but it ultimately fell into decline after centuries of devastating earthquakes and successive conquests by Persian, Arab, Crusader, and Mamluk forces, leaving behind a rich archaeological legacy buried beneath the modern city.
The Hasmonean dynasty[4] (/hæzməˈniːən/; Hebrew: חַשְׁמוֹנָאִים Ḥašmōnāʾīm; Greek: Ασμοναϊκή δυναστεία) was a Jewish ruling dynasty of Judea and surrounding regions during the Hellenistic times of the Second Temple period (part of classical antiquity), from c. 141 BC to 37 BC. Between c. 141 and c. 116 BC the dynasty ruled Judea semi-autonomously within the Seleucid Empire, and from roughly 110 BC, with the empire disintegrating, gained further autonomy and expanded into the neighboring regions of Perea, Samaria, Idumea, Galilee, and Iturea. The Hasmonean rulers took the Greek title basileus ("king") and the kingdom attained regional power status for several decades. Forces of the Roman Republic intervened in the Hasmonean Civil War in 63 BC, turning the kingdom into a client state and marking an irreversible decline of Hasmonean power; Herod the Great displaced the last reigning Hasmonean client-ruler in 37 BCE.
Simon Thassi established the dynasty in 141 BCE, two decades after his brother Judah Maccabee (יהודה המכבי Yehudah HaMakabi) had defeated the Seleucid army during the Maccabean Revolt of 167 to 160 BCE. According to 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, and the first book of The Jewish War by historian Josephus (37 – c. 100 AD),[5] the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175–164) moved to assert strict control over the Seleucid satrapy of Coele Syria and Phoenicia[6] after his successful invasion of Ptolemaic Egypt (170–168 BCE) was turned back by the intervention of the Roman Republic.[7][8] He sacked Jerusalem and its Temple, suppressing Jewish and Samaritan religious and cultural observances,[6][9] and imposed Hellenistic practices (c. 168–167 BCE).[9] The steady collapse of the Seleucid Empire under attacks from the rising powers of the Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire allowed Judea to regain some autonomy; however, in 63 BCE, the kingdom was invaded by the Roman Republic, broken up and set up as a Roman client state.
Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, Simon's great-grandsons, became pawns in a proxy war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. The deaths of Pompey (48 BCE) and Caesar (44 BCE), and the related Roman civil wars, temporarily relaxed Rome's grip on the Hasmonean kingdom, allowing a brief reassertion of autonomy backed by the Parthian Empire, rapidly crushed by the Romans under Mark Antony and Augustus.
The Hasmonean dynasty had survived for 103 years before yielding to the Herodian dynasty in 37 BCE. The installation of Herod the Great (an Idumean) as king in 37 BC made Judea a Roman client state and marked the end of the Hasmonean dynasty. Even then, Herod tried to bolster the legitimacy of his reign by marrying a Hasmonean princess, Mariamne, and planning to drown the last male Hasmonean heir at his Jericho palace. In 6 cE, Rome joined Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea into the Roman province of Judaea. In 44 CE, Rome installed the rule of a procurator side by side with the rule of the Herodian kings (specifically Agrippa I 41–44 and Agrippa II 50–100).
Etymology
The family name of the Hasmonean dynasty originates from the ancestor of the house, whom Josephus called by the Hellenised form Asmoneus or Asamoneus (Greek: Ἀσαμωναῖος),[10] said to have been the great-grandfather of Mattathias, but about whom nothing more is known.[11] The name appears to come from the Hebrew name Hashmonai (Hebrew: חַשְׁמוֹנַאי, romanized: Ḥašmōnaʾy).[12] An alternative view posits that the Hebrew name Hashmona'i is linked with the village of Heshmon, mentioned in Joshua 15:27.[11] P.J. Gott and Logan Licht attribute the name to "Ha Simeon", a veiled reference to the Simeonite Tribe.[13]
Hasmonean leaders
Maccabees (rebel leaders)
- Mattathias, 170–167 BCE
- Judas Maccabeus, 167–160 BCE
- Jonathan Apphus, 160–143 BCE (High Priest from 152 BCE)
Monarchs (ethnarchs and kings) and high priests
- Simon Thassi, 142/1–134 BCE (Ethnarch and High Priest)
- John Hyrcanus I, 134–104 BCE (Ethnarch and High Priest)
- Aristobulus I, 104–103 BCE (King and High Priest)
- Alexander Jannaeus, 103–76 BCE (King and High Priest)
- Salome Alexandra, 76–67 BCE (the only Queen regnant)
- Hyrcanus II, 67–66 BCE (King from 67 BCE; High Priest from 76 BCE)
- Aristobulus II, 66–63 BCE (King and High Priest)
- Hyrcanus II (restored), 63–40 BCE (High Priest from 63 BCE; Ethnarch from 47 BCE)
- Antigonus, 40–37 BCE (King and High Priest)
- Aristobulus III, 36 BCE (only High Priest)
Historical sources
The major source of information about the origin of the Hasmonean dynasty is the books 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees, held as canonical scripture by the Catholic, Orthodox, and most Oriental Orthodox churches and as apocryphal by Protestant denominations, although they do not comprise the canonical books of the Hebrew Bible.[14]
The books cover the period from 175 BCE to 134 BCE during which time the Hasmonean dynasty became semi-independent from the Seleucid empire but had not yet expanded far outside of Judea. They are written from the point of view that the salvation of the Jewish people in a crisis came from God through the family of Mattathias, particularly his sons Judas Maccabeus, Jonathan Apphus, and Simon Thassi, and his grandson John Hyrcanus. The books include historical and religious material from the Septuagint that was codified by Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians.
The other primary source for the Hasmonean dynasty is the first book of The Wars of the Jews and a more detailed history in Antiquities of the Jews by the Jewish historian Josephus, (37–c. 100 AD).[5] Josephus' account is the only primary source covering the history of the Hasmonean dynasty during the period of its expansion and independence between 110 and 63 BCE. Notably, Josephus, a Roman citizen and former general in the Galilee, who survived the Jewish–Roman wars of the 1st century, was a Jew who was captured by and cooperated with the Romans, and wrote his books under Roman patronage.
Background
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The lands of the former Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah (c. 722–586 BCE), had been occupied in turn by Assyria, Babylonia, the Achaemenid Empire, and Alexander the Great's Hellenic Macedonian empire (c. 330 BC), although Jewish religious practice and culture had persisted and even flourished during certain periods. The entire region was heavily contested between the successor states of Alexander's empire, the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Kingdom, during the six Syrian Wars of the 3rd–1st centuries BCE: "After two centuries of peace under the Persians, the Hebrew state found itself once more caught in the middle of power struggles between two great empires: the Seleucid state with its capital in Syria to the north and the Ptolemaic state, with its capital in Egypt to the south. ... Between 319 and 302 BCE, Jerusalem changed hands seven times."[15]
Under Antiochus III the Great, the Seleucids wrested control of Judea from the Ptolemies for the final time, defeating Ptolemy V Epiphanes at the Battle of Panium in 200 BCE.[16][17] Seleucid rule over the Jewish parts of the region then resulted in the rise of Hellenistic cultural and religious practices: "In addition to the turmoil of war, there arose in the Jewish nation pro-Seleucid and pro-Ptolemaic parties; and the schism exercised great influence upon the Judaism of the time. It was in Antioch that the Jews first made the acquaintance of Hellenism and of the more corrupt sides of Greek culture; and it was from Antioch that Judea henceforth was ruled."[18]
Seleucid rule over Judea
Hellenization
The continuing Hellenization of Judea pitted those who eagerly Hellenized against traditionalists,[19] as the former felt that the latter's orthodoxy held them back;[20] additionally the conflict between Ptolemies and Seleucids further divided them over allegiance to either faction.
An example of these divisions is the conflict which broke out between High Priest Onias III (who opposed Hellenisation and favoured the Ptolemies) and his brother Jason (who favoured Hellenisation and the Seleucids) in 175 BCE, followed by a period of political intrigue with both Jason and Menelaus bribing the king to win the High Priesthood, and accusations of murder of competing contenders for the title. The result was a brief civil war. The Tobiads, a philo-Hellenistic party, succeeded in placing Jason into the powerful position of High Priest. He established an arena for public games close by the Temple.[21] Author Lee I. Levine notes, "The 'piece de resistance' of Judaean Hellenisation, and the most dramatic of all these developments, occurred in 175 BCE, when the high priest Jason converted Jerusalem into a Greek polis replete with gymnasium and ephebeion (2 Maccabees 4). Whether this step represents the culmination of a 150-year process of Hellenisation within Jerusalem in general, or whether it was only the initiative of a small coterie of Jerusalem priests with no wider ramifications, has been debated for decades."[22] Hellenised Jews are known to have engaged in non-surgical foreskin restoration (epispasm) in order to join the dominant Hellenistic cultural practice of socialising naked in the gymnasium,[23][24][25] where their circumcision would have carried a social stigma;[23][24][25] Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman culture found circumcision to be a cruel, barbaric and repulsive custom.[23][24][25]
Antiochus IV
In spring 168 BCE, after successfully invading the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt, Antiochus IV was humiliatingly pressured by the Romans to withdraw. According to the Roman historian Livy, the Roman senate dispatched the diplomat Gaius Popilius to Egypt who demanded Antiochus to withdraw. When Antiochus requested time to discuss the matter Popilius "drew a circle round the king with the stick he was carrying and said, 'Before you step out of that circle give me a reply to lay before the senate.'"[26]
While Antiochus was campaigning in Egypt, a rumor spread in Judah that he had been killed. The deposed high priest Jason[clarification needed] took advantage of the situation, attacked Jerusalem, and drove away Menelaus and his followers. Menelaus took refuge in Akra, the Seleucids fortress in Jerusalem. When Antiochus heard of this, he sent an army to Jerusalem who drove out Jason and his followers, and reinstated Menelaus as high priest;[27] he then imposed a tax and established a fortress in Jerusalem.
During this period Antiochus tried to suppress public observance of Jewish laws, apparently in an attempt to secure control over the Jews. His government set up an idol of Zeus[28] on the Temple Mount, which Jews considered to be desecration of the Mount, outlawed observance of the Sabbath and the offering of sacrifices at the Jerusalem Temple, required Jewish leaders to sacrifice to idols and forbade both circumcision and possession of Jewish scriptures, on pain of death. Punitive executions were also instituted.
According to Josephus,
The motives of Antiochus are unclear. He may have been incensed at the overthrow of his appointee, Menelaus,[30] he may have been responding to a Jewish revolt that had drawn on the Temple and the Torah for its strength, or he may have been encouraged by a group of radical Hellenisers among the Jews.[31]
Maccabean Revolt
The author of the First Book of Maccabees regarded the Maccabean revolt as a rising of pious Jews against the Seleucid king who had tried to eradicate their religion and against the Jews who supported him. The author of the Second Book of Maccabees presented the conflict as a struggle between "Judaism" and "Hellenism", words that he was the first to use.[31] Modern scholarship tends to the second view.
Most modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in a civil war between traditionalist Jews in the countryside and Hellenised Jews in Jerusalem.[32][33][34] According to Joseph P. Schultz, modern scholarship, "considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppression than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp."[35] In the conflict over the office of High Priest, traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contested against Hellenisers with Greek names like Jason or Menelaus.[36] Other authors point to social and economic factors in the conflict.[37][38] What began as a civil war took on the character of an invasion when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenising Jews against the traditionalists.[39] As the conflict escalated, Antiochus prohibited the practices of the traditionalists, thereby, in a departure from usual Seleucid practice, banning the religion of an entire people.[38] Other scholars argue that while the rising began as a religious rebellion, it was gradually transformed into a war of national liberation.[40]
According to I and II Maccabees, the priestly family of Mattathias (Mattitiyahu in Hebrew), which came to be known as the Maccabees,[42] called the people forth to holy war against the Seleucids. Mattathias' sons Judas (Yehuda), Jonathan (Yonoson/Yonatan), and Simon (Shimon) began a military campaign, initially with disastrous results: one thousand Jewish men, women, and children were killed by Seleucid troops during Sabbath as they refused to fight on the holy day. After that, other Jews accepted that when attacked on the Sabbath they should fight back.
Judas leads the revolt (166–160 BCE)
Eventually the use of guerrilla warfare practices by Judah over several years gave control of the country to the Maccabees:
Towards the end of 164 BCE, after reaching a compromise with Lysias (who retreated to Antioch perhaps for political reasons following the death of Antiochus IV who died while campaigning against the Parthians),[44] Judas entered Jerusalem and re-established the formal religious worship of Yahweh. The feast of Hanukkah was instituted to commemorate the recovery of the temple.[45]
Around April 162 Judas laid siege to Acra, which had remained under Seleucids control, as a response Lysias returned to fight the jews in the Battle of Beth Zechariah, but despite the positive outcome of the battle, the resistance of the Maccabees in the mountains of Aphairema (near the original center of the revolt)[46] and troubles in his own home country, prompted by the political situation surrounding the young Antiochus V Eupator successor of Antiochus IV, forced Lysias to once again negotiate peace with the Maccabees, renouncing to his siege of Jerusalem in exchange for the Maccabean siege to Acra.[note 1]
In 161, while on his way to assume governorship Nicanor, the newly appointed strategos of the region, won a skirmish against Simon, and while in Jerusalem, despite 2 Maccabees describing good initial relations between him and Judas(including the appointment to an official position), he eventually tried of have the latter arrested. Judas was however able to flee to the countryside and, after defeating Nicanor and the small contingent under him that was giving chase, he later managed to win a decisive battle at Adasa where Nicanor was killed (ib. 7:26–50), granting Judas once again control over Jerusalem. At this point, strong of his multiple wins over the Seleucids, he sent Eupolemus the son of Johanan and Jason the son of Eleazar as a diplomatic party "to make a league of amity and confederacy with the Romans."[48]
However on the same year, Antiochus V was soon succeeded by his cousin Demetrius I Soter, whose throne his father had usurped. Demetrius, after getting rid of Antiochus and Lysas, sent the general Bacchides to Israel with a large army, in order to install Alcimus to the office of high priest. After Bacchides carried out a massacre in Galilee and Alcimus thus claimed to be in a better position than Judas to protect the Hebrew population, the Hasmonean leader prepared to meet the Seleucid general in battle; the unorthodox route Bacchides took however (through Mount Beth El) may have surprised Judas's forces, two thirds of which, finding themselves greatly outnumbered in an open field battle, didn't actually fight. In what is known as the Battle of Elasa (Laisa), Judas choose to fight against all odds and aimed to win by charging the right flank where Bacchides would be located and decapitate the Seleucid army as he did with Nicanor's. After what the sources describe as a battle that lasted 'from morning to evening', the Seleucid cavalry was able to cut off Judas, and it ultimately was the Jewish army who was dispersed after the loss of their leader.
The achievement of autonomy
Jonathan (159–143 BCE)
Upon Judas death the persecuted patriots, under his brother Jonathan, fled beyond the Jordan River. (ib. 9:25–27) They set camp near a morass by the name of Asphar, and remained, after several engagements with the Seleucids, in the swamp in the country east of the Jordan.
Following the death of his puppet High Priest Alcimus in 159 BCE, Bacchides felt secure enough to leave the country, but two years later, the City of Acre contacted Demetrius and requested the return of Bacchides to deal with the Maccabean threat. Jonathan and Simeon, wise of 10 years worth of experience in guerrilla warfare, thought it well to retreat farther, and accordingly fortified a place named Beth-hogla in the desert,[49] where they were besieged several days by Bacchides. Jonathan offered the rival general a peace treaty and exchange of prisoners of war which Bacchides readily consented to and even took an oath of nevermore making war upon Jonathan. Bacchius and his forces then left Israel and nothing is reported for the five following years (158–153 BCE) as the chief source (1 Maccabees) reports: "Thus the sword ceased from Israel. Jonathan settled in Michmash and began to judge the people; and he destroyed the godless and the apostate out of Israel".[50]
Officially High Priest
An important external event brought the design of the Maccabeans to fruition. Demetrius I Soter's relations with Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon (reigned 159–138 BCE), Ptolemy VI of Egypt (reigned 163–145 BCE), and Ptolemy's co-ruler Cleopatra II of Egypt were deteriorating, and they supported a rival claimant to the Seleucid throne: Alexander Balas, who purported to be the son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and a first cousin of Demetrius. Demetrius was forced to recall the garrisons of Judea, except those in the City of Acre and at Beth-zur, to bolster his strength. Furthermore, he made a bid for the loyalty of Jonathan, permitting him to recruit an army and to reclaim the hostages kept in the City of Acre. Jonathan gladly accepted these terms, took up residence at Jerusalem in 153 BCE, and began fortifying the city.
Alexander Balas offered Jonathan even more favourable terms, including official appointment as High Priest in Jerusalem, and despite a second letter from Demetrius promising prerogatives that were almost impossible to guarantee,[51] Jonathan declared allegiance to Balas. Jonathan became the official religious leader of his people, and officiated at the Feast of Tabernacles of 153 BCE wearing the High Priest's garments. The Hellenistic party could no longer attack him without severe consequences. Hasmoneans held the office of High Priest continuously until 37 BCE.
Soon, Demetrius lost both his throne and his life, in 150 BCE. The victorious Alexander Balas was given the further honour of marriage to Cleopatra Thea, daughter of his allies Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II. Jonathan was invited to Ptolemais for the ceremony, appearing with presents for both kings, and was permitted to sit between them as their equal; Balas even clothed him with his own royal garment and otherwise accorded him high honour. Balas appointed Jonathan as strategos and "meridarch" (i.e., civil governor of a province; details not found in Josephus), sent him back with honours to Jerusalem,[52] and refused to listen to the Hellenistic party's complaints against Jonathan.
Challenge by Apollonius
In 147 BCE, Demetrius II Nicator, a son of Demetrius I Soter, claimed Balas' throne. The governor of Coele-Syria, Apollonius Taos, used the opportunity to challenge Jonathan to battle, saying that the Jews might for once leave the mountains and venture out into the plain.[53] Jonathan and Simeon led a force of 10,000 men against Apollonius' forces in Jaffa, which was unprepared for the rapid attack and opened the gates in surrender to the Jewish forces. Apollonius received reinforcements from Azotus and appeared in the plain in charge of 3,000 men including superior cavalry forces. Jonathan assaulted, captured and burned Azotus along with the resident temple of Dagon and the surrounding villages.
Alexander Balas honoured the victorious High Priest by giving him the city of Ekron along with its outlying territory. The people of Azotus complained to King Ptolemy VI, who had come to make war upon his son-in-law, but Jonathan met Ptolemy at Jaffa in peace and accompanied him as far as the River Eleutherus. Jonathan then returned to Jerusalem, maintaining peace with the King of Egypt despite their support for different contenders for the Seleucid throne.[54]
Territorial expansion
In 145 BCE, the Battle of Antioch resulted in the final defeat of Alexander Balas by the forces of his father-in-law Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy himself, however, was among the casualties of the battle. Demetrius II Nicator remained sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire and became the second husband of Cleopatra Thea.
Jonathan owed no allegiance to the new King and took this opportunity to lay siege to the Acra, the Seleucid fortress in Jerusalem and the symbol of Seleucid control over Judea. It was heavily garrisoned by a Seleucid force and offered asylum to Jewish Hellenists.[55] Demetrius was greatly incensed; he appeared with an army at Ptolemais and ordered Jonathan to come before him. Without raising the siege, Jonathan, accompanied by the elders and priests, went to the king and pacified him with presents, so that the king not only confirmed him in his office of high priest, but gave to him the three Samaritan toparchies of Mount Ephraim, Lod, and Ramathaim-Zophim. In consideration of a present of 300 talents the entire country was exempted from taxes, the exemption being confirmed in writing. Jonathan in return lifted the siege of the Acra and left it in Seleucid hands.
Soon, however, a new claimant to the Seleucid throne appeared in the person of the young Antiochus VI Dionysus, son of Alexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea. He was three years old at most, but general Diodotus Tryphon used him to advance his own designs on the throne. In the face of this new enemy, Demetrius not only promised to withdraw the garrison from the City of Acre, but also called Jonathan his ally and requested him to send troops. The 3,000 men of Jonathan protected Demetrius in his capital, Antioch, against his own subjects.[56] As Demetrius II did not keep his promise, Jonathan thought it better to support the new king when Diodotus Tryphon and Antiochus VI seized the capital, especially as the latter confirmed all his rights and appointed his brother Simon (Simeon) strategos of the Paralia (the sea coast), from the "Ladder of Tyre" to the frontier of Egypt.[57]
Jonathan and Simon were now entitled to make conquests; Ashkelon submitted voluntarily while Gaza was forcibly taken. Jonathan vanquished even the strategoi of Demetrius II far to the north, in the plain of Hazar, while Simon at the same time took the strong fortress of Beth-zur on the pretext that it harboured supporters of Demetrius.[58] Like Judas in former years, Jonathan sought alliances with foreign peoples. He renewed the treaty with the Roman Republic and exchanged friendly messages with Sparta and other places. However, the documents referring to those diplomatic events are of questionable authenticity.
Captivity and death
Diodotus Tryphon went with an army to Judea and invited Jonathan to Scythopolis for a friendly conference, where he persuaded him to dismiss his army of 40,000 men, promising to give him Ptolemais and other fortresses. Jonathan fell into the trap; he took with him to Ptolemais 1,000 men, all of whom were slain; he himself was taken prisoner.[59]
When Diodotus Tryphon was about to enter Judea at Hadid, he was confronted by the new Jewish leader, Simon, ready for battle. Tryphon, avoiding an engagement, demanded one hundred talents and Jonathan's two sons as hostages, in return for which he promised to liberate Jonathan. Although Simon did not trust Diodotus Tryphon, he complied with the request so that he might not be accused of the death of his brother. But Diodotus Tryphon did not liberate his prisoner; angry that Simon blocked his way everywhere and that he could accomplish nothing, he executed Jonathan at Baskama, in the country east of the Jordan.[60] Jonathan was buried by Simeon at Modin. Nothing is known of his two captive sons. One of his daughters was an ancestor of Josephus.[61]
Simon assumes leadership (142–135 BCE)
Simon assumed the leadership (142 BCE), receiving the double office of High Priest and Ethnarch (Prince) of Israel. The leadership of the Hasmoneans was established by a resolution, adopted in 141 BCE, at a large assembly "of the priests and the people and of the elders of the land, to the effect that Simon should be their leader and High Priest forever, until there should arise a faithful prophet" (1 Macc. 14:41). Ironically, the election was performed in Hellenistic fashion.
Simon, having made the Jewish people semi-independent of the Seleucid Greeks, reigned from 142 to 135 BCE and formed the Hasmonean dynasty, finally capturing the citadel [Acra] in 141 BCE.[62][63] The Roman Senate accorded the new dynasty recognition c. 139 BC, when the delegation of Simon was in Rome.[64]
Simon led the people in peace and prosperity, until in February 135 BCE, he was assassinated at the instigation of his son-in-law Ptolemy, son of Abubus (also spelled Abobus or Abobi), who had been named governor of the region by the Seleucids. Simon's eldest sons, Mattathias and Judah, were also murdered.
Hasmonean expansion
After achieving semi-independency from the Seleucid Empire, the dynasty began to expand into the neighboring regions. Perea was conquered already by Jonathan Apphus, subsequently John Hyrcanus conquered Samaria and Idumea, Aristobulus I conquered the territory of Galilee, and Alexander Jannaeus conquered the territory of Iturea. In addition to territorial conquests, the Hasmonean rulers, initially reigning only as rebel leaders, gradually assumed the religious office of High Priest during the reign of Jonathan Apphus in 152 BCE and the monarchical title of Ethnarch during the reign of Simon Thassi in 142 BCE, eventually assuming the title of King (basileus) in 104 BCE by Aristobulus I.
John Hyracnus (135–104 BCE)
In c. 135 BCE, John Hyrcanus, Simon's third son, assumed the leadership as both the High Priest (Kohen Gadol) and Ethnarch, taking a Greek "regnal name" (see Hyrcania) in an acceptance of the Hellenistic culture of his Seleucid suzerains. Within a year of the death of Simon, Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes attacked Jerusalem. According to Josephus,[65] John Hyrcanus opened King David's sepulchre and removed three thousand talents which he paid as tribute to spare the city. He managed to retain governorship as a Seleucid vassal and for the next two decades of his reign, Hyrcanus continued, like his father, to rule semi-autonomously from the Seleucids.
The Seleucid empire had been disintegrating in the face of the Seleucid–Parthian wars and in 129 BCE Antiochus VII Sidetes was killed in Media by the forces of Phraates II of Parthia, permanently ending Seleucid rule east of the Euphrates. In 116 BCE, a civil war between Seleucid half-brothers Antiochus VIII Grypus and Antiochus IX Cyzicenus broke out, and it was in this moment of division of the already significantly reduced kingdom that semi-independent Seleucid client states such as Judea found an opportunity to revolt.[66][67][68] In 110 BCE, John Hyrcanus carried out the first military conquests of the newly independent Hasmonean kingdom, raising a mercenary army to capture Madaba and Schechem, significantly increasing his regional influence.[69][70][full citation needed]
Hyrcanus conquered Transjordan, Samaria,[71] and Idumea[better source needed] (also known as Edom), and forced Idumeans to convert to Judaism:
Aristobulus I (104–103 BCE)
Hyrcanus desired for his wife to succeed him as head of the government, but upon his death in 104 BCE, the eldest of his five sons, Aristobulus I, whom he had wished to provide only with the title of High Priest, jailed his three brothers (including Alexander Jannaeus) and his mother, starving her to death. By those means he came into possession of the throne and became the first Hasmonean to take the title of Basileus, asserting the new-found independence of the state. Subsequently he conquered Galilee.[73] Aristobulus I died after a painful illness in 103 BCE.
Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BCE)
Aristobulus' brothers were freed from prison by his widow; one of them, Alexander Jannaeus, reigned as a king as well as a high priest from 103–76 BCE. During his reign he conquered Iturea and, according to Josephus, forcibly converted Itureans to Judaism.[74][75]
In 93 BCE at the Battle of Gadara, Jannaeus and his forces were ambushed in a hilly area by the Nabataeans, who saw the Hasmoneans' Transjordanian acquisitions as a threat to their interests, and Jannaeus was "lucky to escape alive". After this defeat, Jannaeus returned to fierce Jewish opposition in Jerusalem, and had to cede the Transjordan territories to the Nabataeans just so he could dissuade them from supporting his opponents in Judea;[76] according to Josephus, in c. 87 BCE, six year into the civil war (which involved even the Seleucid king Demetrius III Eucaerus), he crucified 800 Jewish rebels in Jerusalem.
He died during the siege of the fortress Ragaba and was followed by his wife, Salome Alexandra, who reigned from 76 to 67 BCE. She was the only regnant Jewish Queen in the Second Temple period, having followed usurper Queen Athalia who had reigned centuries prior. During Alexandra's reign, her son Hyrcanus II held the office of High Priest and was named her successor.
Civil war
Pharisee and Sadducee factions
Pharisees and Sadducees were rival sects of Judaism, all through the Hasmonean period, they functioned primarily as political factions.
One of the factors that distinguished the Pharisees (which are first mentioned by Josephus in connection with Jonathan ("Ant." xiii. 5, § 9)) from other groups prior to the destruction of the Temple was their belief that all Jews had to observe the purity laws (which applied to the Temple service) outside the Temple. The major difference, however, was the continued adherence of the Pharisees to the laws and traditions of the Jewish people in the face of assimilation. As Josephus noted, the Pharisees were considered the most expert and accurate expositors of Jewish law. Later texts such as the Mishnah and the Talmud record a host of rulings ascribed to the Pharisees concerning sacrifices and other ritual practices in the Temple, torts, criminal law, and governance. The influence of the Pharisees over the lives of the common people remained strong, and their rulings on Jewish law were deemed authoritative by many. Although these texts were written long after these periods, many scholars believe that they are a fairly reliable account of history during the Second Temple period.
Although the Pharisees had opposed the wars of expansion of the Hasmoneans and the forced conversions of the Idumeans, the political rift between them became wider when Pharisees demanded that the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus choose between being king and being High Priest. In response, the king openly sided with the Sadducees by adopting their rites in the Temple. His actions caused a riot in the Temple and led to a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees, although at his deathbed the king called for a reconciliation between the two parties.
However, Alexander was succeeded by his widow, Salome Alexandra, who Josephus attests as having been very favourably inclined toward the Pharisees, her brother Shimon ben Shetach being a leading Pharisee himself, tremendously increasing their political influence under her reign, especially in the institution known as the Sanhedrin.
War of succession between Hyrcanus II (67–66 BCE) and Aristobulus II (66–63 BCE)
Upon her death her elder son, Hyrcanus II, sought Pharisee support and her younger son, Aristobulus II, sought the support of the Sadducees; Hyrcanus, had scarcely reigned three months when his younger brother, Aristobulus, rose in rebellion. The conflict between them only ended when the Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem in 63 BC and inaugurated the Roman period of Jewish history.
According to Josephus: "Now Hyrcanus was heir to the kingdom, and to him did his mother commit it before she died; but Aristobulus was superior to him in power and magnanimity; and when there was a battle between them, to decide the dispute about the kingdom, near Jericho, the greatest part deserted Hyrcanus, and went over to Aristobulus."[77]
Hyrcanus then took refuge in the citadel of Jerusalem, but the eventual capture of the Temple by Aristobulus II compelled him to surrender. A peace was concluded, according to the terms of which Hyrcanus was to renounce the throne and the office of high priest (comp. Emil Schürer, "Gesch." i. 291, note 2), but was to retain the revenues of his previous role, as Josephus states: "but Hyrcanus, with those of his party who stayed with him, fled to Antonia, and got into his power the hostages (which were Aristobulus's wife, with her children) that he might persevere; but the parties came to an agreement before things should come to extremes, that Aristobulus should be king, and Hyrcanus should resign, but retain all the rest of his dignities, as being the king's brother. Hereupon they were reconciled to each other in the Temple, and embraced one another in a very kind manner, while the people stood round about them; they also changed their houses, while Aristobulus went to the royal palace, and Hyrcanus retired to the house of Aristobulus."[77] Aristobulus then ruled from 67–63 BCE.
From 63 to 40 BCE, the official government (by this time reduced to a protectorate of Rome as described below) was back in the hands of Hyrcanus II as High Priest and Ethnarch, although effective power was in the hands of his adviser Antipater the Idumaean.
Intrigues of Antipater
While Hyrcanus had retired to private life, Antipater the Idumean, governor of Idumea, began to impress upon his mind that Aristobulus was planning his death, finally persuading him to take refuge with Aretas, king of the Nabatæans. Aretas, bribed by Antipater, who also promised him the restitution of the Arabian towns taken by the Hasmoneans, readily espoused the cause of Hyrcanus and advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of fifty thousand. During the siege, which lasted several months, the adherents of Hyrcanus were guilty of two acts that greatly incensed the majority of the Jews: they stoned the pious Onias (see Honi ha-Magel) and when the besieged paid the besiegers to receive sacrificial lambs for the purpose of the paschal sacrifice, they instead sent a pig.[note 2]
Roman intervention: the end of the Hasmonean dynasty
Pompey the Great
While this civil war was going on, the Roman general Marcus Aemilius Scaurus went to Syria to take possession of the kingdom of the Seleucids, in the name of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Each of the brothers appealed to him through gifts and promises: Scaurus, moved by a gift of four hundred talents, decided in favour of Aristobulus; Aretas was ordered to withdraw his army from Judea and while retreating suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Aristobulus himself.
But the situation changed when Pompey, who had just been awarded the title "Conqueror of Asia" due to his decisive victories in Asia Minor over Pontus and the Seleucid Empire, came to Syria (63 BC) having decided to bring Judea under the rule of the Romans. The two brothers, as well as a third party which, weary of Hasmonean quarrels, desired the extinction of the dynasty, sent delegates to Pompey; who delayed the decision and eventually, in spite of Aristobulus' gift of a golden vine valued at five hundred talents, decided that Hyrcanus II would have made a more acceptable ward of Rome than his brother. Aristobulus fathomed the designs of Pompey and assembled his armies; but Pompey was able to defeat him multiple times and capture his cities, so he entrenched himself in the fortress of Alexandrium. Soon realising the futility of resistance however, he surrendered at the first summons of the Romans, and decided to deliver Jerusalem to them. Despite this, the patriots were not willing to open their gates to the Romans, and a siege ensued which ended in the capture of the city. Aristobulus was taken to Rome a prisoner, but Hyrcanus II was reappointed only to the office of High Priest, without actual political authority, factually ending the Hasmoean rule of the area and Jewish independence with it.
Pompey entered the Holy of Holies (this was only the second time that someone had dared to penetrate into this sacred spot) Judaea had to pay tribute to Rome and was placed under the supervision of the Roman governor of Syria:
In 57–55 BC, Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, split the former Hasmonean Kingdom into Galilee, Samaria, and Judea, with five districts of legal and religious councils known as sanhedrin (Greek: συνέδριον, "synedrion"): "And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at Jerusalem, the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth at Jericho, and the fifth at Sepphoris in Galilee."[79][80]
Julius Caesar and Antipater
When, in 50 BCE, it appeared that Julius Caesar was interested in using Aristobulus and his family as his clients to take control of Judea from Hyrcanus II and Antipater, who were in turn clients of Pompey, the supporters of the latter had Aristobulus poisoned in Rome and executed Alexander in Antioch.
However, Hyrcanus and Antipater would soon turn to the other side:
Antipater and Hyrcanus's newly won favour led the triumphant Caesar to ignore the claims of Aristobulus's younger son, Antigonus the Hasmonean, and to confirm them in their authority, despite their previous allegiance to Pompey. Josephus noted,
Hyrcanus II' restoration as ethnarch in 47 BCE coincided with Caesar's appointment of Antipater as the first Procurator of Judea (Roman province) "Caesar appointed Hyrcanus to be high priest, and gave Antipater what principality he himself should choose, leaving the determination to himself; so he made him procurator of Judea."[83]
Antipater appointed his sons to positions of influence: Phasael became Governor of Jerusalem, and Herod Governor of Galilee. This led to increasing tension between Hyrcanus and the family of Antipater, culminating in a trial of Herod for supposed abuses in his governorship, which resulted in Herod's flight into exile in 46 BC. Herod soon returned, however, and the honours to Antipater's family continued. Hyrcanus' incapacity and weakness were so manifest that, when he defended Herod against the Sanhedrin and before Mark Antony, the latter stripped Hyrcanus of his nominal political authority and his title, bestowing them both upon the accused.
Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE spreading unrest and confusion throughout the Roman world, including Judaea. Shortly thereafter, Antipater the Idumean was assassinated in 43 BCE by the Nabatean king, Malichus I, who had bribed one of Hyrcanus' cup-bearers to poison him. However, Antipater's sons managed to maintain their control over Hyrcanus and Judea.
Mattathias Antigonus (40–37 BCE) and the Parthian invasion
In 40 BC a Parthian army crossed the Euphrates, joined by Quintus Labienus, a Roman republican general, who was once sent as ambassador to the Parthians, and who now, following the events of the Liberators' civil war, assisted them in their invasion of Roman territories, and was able to entice Mark Antony's Roman garrisons around Syria to rally to his cause.
The Parthians split their army, and under Pacorus conquered the Levant:
When Antipater's son Phasael and Hyrcanus II set out on an embassy to the Parthians which got captured, Antigonus, who was present, cut off Hyrcanus's ears to make him unsuitable for the High Priesthood, while Phasael was put to death. Antigonus, whose Hebrew name was Mattathias, bore the double title of king and High Priest for only three years, as he had not disposed of Antipater's other son Herod, the most dangerous of his enemies.
Herod the Great and Mark Antony
Herod fled into exile and sought the support of Mark Antony. He was designated "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate in 40 BC as Antony
The struggle thereafter lasted for some years, as the main Roman forces were occupied with defeating the Parthians and had few additional resources to use to support Herod. After the Parthians' defeat however, in 37 BCE Herod was victorious over his rival; Antigonus was delivered to Antony, executed and the Romans assented to Herod's proclamation as King of the Jews, bringing about the end of the Hasmonean rule over Judea.
The last Hasmoneans
Antigonus was not the last Hasmonean; however, the fate of the remaining male members of the family under Herod was not a happy one. Aristobulus III, grandson of Aristobulus II through his elder son Alexander, was briefly made high priest, but was soon executed (36 BC) due to Herod's jealousy. His sister Mariamne was married to Herod,[86] but also fell victim to his jealousy. Her sons by Herod, Aristobulus IV and Alexander, were in their adulthood also executed by their father.
Hyrcanus II had been held by the Parthians since 40 BC. For four years he lived amid the Babylonian Jews, who paid him every mark of respect. However, in 36 BC Herod, who feared that the last remaining male Hasmonean might gain the support of the Parthians to retake the throne, invited him to return to Jerusalem. The Babylonian Jews warned him in vain as Herod received him with every mark of respect, assigning him the first place at his table and the presidency of the state council, while awaiting an opportunity to get rid of him. As a Hasmonean, Hyrcanus was too dangerous a rival for Herod. In the year 30 BC, charged with plotting with the King of Arabia, Hyrcanus was condemned and executed.
The later Herodian rulers Agrippa I and Agrippa II both had Hasmonean blood, as Agrippa I's father was Aristobulus IV, son of Herod by Mariamne I, but they were not direct male descendants. The Hasmoneans did not have defined rules for succession and Agrippa was viewed as legitimate via his grandmother, Mariamne I.
Foreign views
In his Histories, Tacitus explained the background for the establishment of the Hasmonean state:
Legacy and scholarship
While the Hasmonean dynasty managed to create an independent Jewish kingdom, its successes were rather short-lived, and the dynasty by and large failed to live up to the nationalistic momentum the Maccabee brothers had gained.
Jewish nationalism
The fall of the Hasmonean Kingdom marked an end to a century of Jewish self-governance, but its legacy continued to shape Jewish political consciousness under Roman rule. The memory of Judea as an independent Jewish state made the idea of restored sovereignty a persistent aspiration among the population.[88] The Hasmonean precedent, unique in having established a national state under indigenous leadership in a world dominated by imperial powers, left a lasting imprint on Jewish collective identity and helped cultivate a strong sense of national awareness.[89] This consciousness contributed to later efforts to revive political independence, which culminated in the major Jewish uprisings against Rome in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.[88][89]
During the wars, temporary commonwealths were established, but they ultimately fell to the sustained might of Rome. In the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), Roman legions under Vespasian and Titus besieged and destroyed Jerusalem, looted and burned Herod's Temple (in the year 70) and Jewish strongholds (notably Gamla in 67 and Masada in 73 CE), and enslaved or massacred a large part of the Jewish population. The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) proved even more devastating, resulting in the widespread depopulation of Judea and a shift of the Jewish demographic and cultural center to Galilee. The defeat of the Jewish revolts against the Roman Empire notably contributed to the numbers and geography of the Jewish diaspora, as many Jews were scattered after losing their state or were sold into slavery throughout the empire.
Daniel R. Schwartz believes the thematic differences in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees reflect the ideological divide on whether Jews should be oriented around religion or politics, in the form of Jewish theocracies and/or secular nationalism.[90]
Jewish religious scholarship
Jewish tradition holds that the claiming of kingship by the later Hasmoneans led to their eventual downfall, since that title was only to be held by descendants of the line of King David.[91] The Hasmonean bureaucracy was filled with men with Greek names, and the dynasty eventually became very Hellenised, to the annoyance of many of its more traditionally-minded Jewish subjects.[92][93] Frequent dynastic quarrels also contributed to the view among Jews of later generations that the latter Hasmoneans were degenerate.[94] One member of this school was Josephus, whose accounts are in many cases the sole source of information about the Hasmoneans.
Influence on Jewish religious attitudes and practice
Since the 1990s, a growing body of research has explored several major changes in Jewish ideas and practice during the Hasmonean period. Shaye J. D. Cohen's 1999 book, The Beginnings of Jewishness posited that Jewish identity first began to transcend the Judean nationality and become a religious identity only in the late 2nd century BCE, when the Hasmoneans began conquering and converting neighboring peoples to Judaism.[95] Reinhard Gregor Kratz's 2013 book Historisches und Biblisches Israel (published in English in 2015 as Historical and Biblical Israel) argued that "biblical" and "non-biblical" Israelite/Jewish traditions existed for centuries in antiquity, with biblical Judaism only becoming predominant under the Hasmoneans.[96] John J. Collins's 2017 book, The Invention of Judaism, identified the mid-2nd century BCE as the first time in which contemporary literature is focused on specific questions of Jewish law (halakha).[97] Finally, Yonatan Adler's 2022 book, The Origins of Judaism presented archaeological evidence that many standard Jewish religious practices—such as kashrut and maintaining ritual purity—were not commonly observed before Hasmonean rule.[98]
Since late in the 19th century, many scholars argued that there was an increase in the use of Hebrew language during the Hasmonean period. Indeed this idea finds both literary and archaeological support in recent scholarship.[99]
Numismatics
Hasmonean coins usually featured the Paleo-Hebrew script, an older Phoenician script that was used to write Hebrew. The coins are struck only in bronze. The symbols include a Menorah, cornucopia, palm-branch, lily, an anchor, star, pomegranate and (rarely) a helmet. Despite the apparent Seleucid influences of most of the symbols, the origin of the star is more obscure.[100] Hasmonean coins are the first known coins in Judea to completely omit depictions of humans or animals, which Yonatan Adler posited was evidence that the Hasmoneans were the first Jewish authorities to enforce rules on creations of "graven images" in line with the Ten Commandments.[101]
Mattathias ben Johanan (Hebrew: מַתִּתְיָהוּ הַכֹּהֵן בֶּן יוֹחָנָן, Mattīṯyāhū haKōhēn ben Yōḥānān; died 166–165 BCE)[1] was a Kohen (Jewish priest) who helped spark the Maccabean Revolt against the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. Mattathias's story is related in the deuterocanonical book of 1 Maccabees and in the writings of Josephus. Mattathias is accorded a central role in the story of Hanukkah and, as a result, is named in the Al HaNissim prayer Jews add to the Birkat Hamazon (grace after meals) and the Amidah during the festival's eight days.
History
In all extant accounts from the Second Temple Period, Mattathias was a resident of the rural village of Modi'in, though it is not clear if he was a native.[2] The account of 1 Maccabees states that he moved away from Jerusalem and settled in Modi'in,[3] and while the account of Josephus in Antiquities[4] matches this, the account in Wars simply states that Mattathias (or his father) was a "priest of a village called Modi'in",[5] implying that it was his place of origin.[2]
The account of 1 Maccabees provides the lineage of Mattathias, stating that he was a son of John (Johanan) and grandson of Simeon, a priest from the order of Joarib.[3] Josephus adds the name of Asamonaius to this lineage in both his accounts, and though later rabbinic sources mention Hasmonai as a specific person,[6] "Asmonaius" or "Hasmonean" was probably meant as a family title.[2] This would lead to Mattathias and his descendants being known as the Hasmoneans. Being a descendant of Joarib, the first chief of a priestly division mentioned in the book of Chronicles, he was in turn a descendant of Phinehas, third High Priest of Israel.[7] Like many priests, he most probably served in the Second Temple in Jerusalem, though the sources stating that he was a High Priest[6][8] are relatively late and anachronistic.[2]
Mattathias was the father of Judas Maccabeus (Judah Maccabee), Eleazar Avaran, Simon Thassi (Simeon), John Gaddi, and Jonathan Apphus (Yonatan).
First Stage of the Rebellion
The accounts of 1 Maccabees and Josephus largely agree in their description of the oppressive laws the Hellenistic administration enforced on the Jewish religion, and the role Mattathias played in opposing them.[2]
In 168–167 BCE, a series of Seleucid persecutions of traditional Judaism began, spearheaded by King Antiochus IV Epiphanes and possibly High Priest Menelaus as well.
In 167 BCE, a company of Greek soldiers appeared in Modi'in with orders to enforce Antiochus' ordinances of sacrificing to the Greek gods. Mattathias, being an esteemed member of the community, was asked to serve as an example and lead the village in the sacrifice to the pagan deities, while being promised riches and the prestigious title of "Friend of the King" in return. Mattathias refused, and when another Jew stepped forward to do so, Mattathias killed both him and the government official overseeing the sacrifice, and rallied his supporters:[9][2]
— Mattathias, after assassinating the Greek government official, who was forcing him to sacrifice; 1 Maccabees 2:27
Upon the dramatic killing of the official and the Jew, he and his five sons fled to the wilderness of Judea where they began to build a guerilla force of followers. The area was then known as the Gophna Hills, a region near modern Jifna. He led the rebellion for one year, and before his death, he assigned different roles to two of his sons, based on their individual qualities. Simon was appointed counselor and Judah the military commander.[10][2] According to 1 Maccabees, he died in the 146th year of the Ancient Macedonian calendar, equivalent to some point between Spring 166 – Spring 165 BCE, and was buried in the tomb of his ancestors in Modiin.[11][12]
Contribution to Religious Law
In Jewish scripture there is no explicit mention of the prohibition of warfare on the Sabbath, nor is there any mention of refraining from battle on the Sabbath.[13] Even so, by the Second Temple Period it is clear that combat on the Sabbath was widely viewed by Jews as forbidden, even to the extent of large scale defeat and death. Beginning with the invasion of Jerusalem by Ptolemy I Soter,[13] a number of incidents are documented in the writings of Josephus and in the books of the Maccabees, in which Jewish fighters refrained from combat and even sacrificed their lives in the face of the enemy so as not to desecrate the Sabbath.[14][15][16][17][18][19] In the aftermath of one such incident it is said that Mattathias directed:
This is the earliest known rejection of the commonly accepted prohibition of fighting on the Sabbath, later on in the Second Temple Period this permission was expanded to include not only defensive actions but offensive ones too. This process is reflected in rabbinic sources where the ruling was developed[21] and finally canonized as a Halakhic decree.[22]
Context
This was the first step in the Maccabean Revolt, the result of which was Jewish independence, which had not been enjoyed for more than 400 years. The events of the war of the Maccabees form the basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which is celebrated by Jews on the 25th of Kislev (on the Hebrew calendar, corresponding to mid-November to late December in the Gregorian calendar).
In literature and liturgy
Mattathias is mentioned in the story of the Maccabees, found in the deuterocanonical book of 1 Maccabees, in Josephus, and in Talmudic references (Shabbat 21b, Shabbat 23a – related to the candles). He is also made reference to in chapter 28 of 1 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[23][better source needed] The "Al HaNisim" prayer, added into the Amidah and Birkat Hamazon on Hanukkah, refers to the story of the Maccabees and to Mattathias by name.
Judas Maccabaeus or Maccabeus (/ˌmækəˈbiːəs/ MAK-ə-BEE-əs), also known as Judah Maccabee (Hebrew: יהודה המכבי, romanized: Yehudah HaMakabi),[a] was a Jewish priest (kohen) and a son of the priest Mattathias. He was an early leader in the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire, taking over from his father around 166 BCE, and leading the revolt until his death in 160 BCE.
The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah ("Dedication") commemorates the restoration of Jewish worship at the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 164 BC after Judah Maccabee removed all of the statues depicting Greek gods and goddesses and purified it.
Life
Early life
Judah was the third son of Mattathias, the Hasmonean, a Jewish priest from the village of Modi'in. In 167 BCE, Mattathias, together with his sons Judah, Eleazar, Simon, John, and Jonathan, started a revolt against the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who since 169/8 BC had issued decrees that forbade Jewish religious practices.[1] After Mattathias died in 166 BC, Judah assumed leadership of the revolt per the deathbed disposition of his father. The First Book of Maccabees[2] praises Judah's valor and military talent, suggesting that those qualities made Judah a natural choice for the new commander.
Origin of the name "The Hammer"
In the early days of the rebellion, Judah received the surname Maccabee. It is not known whether this name should be understood in Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic. Several explanations have been put forward for this name. One suggestion is that the name derives from the Aramaic maqqaba ("makebet" in modern Hebrew), "hammer" or "sledgehammer" (cf. the cognomen of Charles Martel, the 8th century Frankish leader), in recognition of his ferocity in battle.
According to Jewish folklore, the name Maccabee is an acronym of the verse Mi kamokha ba'elim Adonai (YHWH), "Who is like you, O God, among the gods that are worshiped?", the Maccabean battle-cry to motivate troops (Exodus 15:11) as well as a part of daily Jewish prayers (see Mi Chamocha). Some scholars maintain that the name is a shortened form of the Hebrew maqqab-Yahu (from naqab, "to mark, to designate"), meaning "the one designated by God."[3] Although contextualized as a modern-day "surname" (Jews didn't start having surnames until the Middle Ages) exclusive to Judah, Maccabee came to signify all the Hasmoneans who fought during the Maccabean revolt.[4]
Early victories
Mindful of the superiority of Seleucid forces during the first two years of the revolt, Judah's strategy was to avoid any engagement with their regular army and resort to guerrilla warfare to give them a feeling of insecurity. The strategy enabled Judah to win a string of victories. At the battle of Nahal el-Haramiah (wadi haramia), he defeated a small Seleucid force under the command of Apollonius, governor of Samaria, who was killed. Judah took possession of Apollonius's sword and used it until his death as a symbol of vengeance. After Nahal el-Haramiah, recruits flocked to the Jewish cause.
Shortly after that, Judah routed a larger Seleucid army under the command of Seron near Beth-Horon, largely thanks to a good choice of battlefield. Then, in the Battle of Emmaus, Judah proceeded to defeat the Seleucid forces led by generals Nicanor and Gorgias. This force was dispatched by Lysias, whom Antiochus left as viceroy after departing on a campaign against the Parthians. By a forced night march, Judah succeeded in eluding Gorgias, who had intended to attack and destroy the Jewish forces in their camp with his cavalry. While Gorgias was searching for him in the mountains, Judah attacked the Seleucid camp, taking the Seleucids by surprise, and defeated them at the Battle of Emmaus. The Seleucid commander had no alternative but to withdraw to the coast.
The defeat at Emmaus convinced Lysias that he must prepare for a serious and prolonged war. He accordingly assembled a new and larger army and marched with it on Judea from the south via Idumea. After several years of conflict, Judah drove out his foes from Jerusalem, except for the garrison in the citadel of Acra. He purified the defiled Temple of Jerusalem and, on the 25th of Kislev (December 14, 164 BCE), restored the service in the Temple. The reconsecration of the Temple became a permanent Jewish holiday, Hanukkah, which continued even after the Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Hanukkah is still celebrated annually. The liberation of Jerusalem was the first step on the road to ultimate independence.
After Jerusalem
Upon hearing the news that the Jewish communities in Gilead, Transjordan, and Galilee were under attack by neighboring Greek cities, Judah immediately went to their aid. Judah sent his brother, Simeon, to Galilee at the head of 3,000 men; Simeon was successful, achieving numerous victories. He transplanted a substantial portion of the Jewish settlements, including women and children, to Judea. Judah led the campaign in Transjordan, taking his brother Jonathan with him. After fierce fighting, he defeated the Transjordanian tribes and rescued the Jews concentrated in fortified towns in Gilead. The Jewish population of the areas taken by the Maccabees was evacuated to Judea.[5] After the fighting in Transjordan, Judah turned against the Edomites in the south, captured and destroyed Hebron and Maresha.[6] He then marched on the coast of the Mediterranean, destroyed the altars and statues of the pagan gods in Ashdod, and returned to Judea with many spoils.
Judah then laid siege to the Seleucid garrison at the Acra, the Seleucid citadel of Jerusalem. The besieged, who included not only Syrian-Greek troops but also Hellenistic Jews, appealed for help to Lysias, who effectively became the regent of the young king Antiochus V Eupator after the death of Antiochus Epiphanes at the end of 164 BC during the Parthian campaign. Lysias and Eupator set out for a new campaign in Judea. Lysias skirted Judea as he had done in his first campaign, entering it from the south and besieging Beth-Zur. Judah raised the siege of the Acra and went to meet Lysias. In the Battle of Beth-zechariah, south of Bethlehem, the Seleucids achieved their first major victory over the Maccabees, and Judah was forced to withdraw to Jerusalem. Beth-Zur was compelled to surrender, and Lysias reached Jerusalem and laid siege on the city. The defenders found themselves in a precarious situation because their provisions were exhausted; it was a sabbatical year during which the fields were left uncultivated. However, just as capitulation seemed imminent, Lysias and Eupator had to withdraw when Antiochus Epiphanes's commander-in-chief Philip, whom the late ruler appointed regent before his death, rebelled against Lysias and was about to enter Antioch and seize power. Lysias proposed a peaceful settlement, which was concluded at the end of 163 BC. The peace terms were based on the restoration of religious freedom, the permission for the Jews to live per their own laws, and the official return of the Temple to the Jews. Lysias defeated Philip, only to be overthrown by Demetrius, son of the late Seleucus IV Philopator, who returned from years as a hostage in Rome. Demetrius appointed Alcimus (Jakim), a Hellenistic Jew, as high priest, a choice the Hasidim (Pietists) might have accepted since he was of priestly descent.
Internal conflict
When war against the external enemy ended, an internal struggle broke out between the party led by Judah and the Hellenist party. The influence of the Hellenizers all but collapsed in the wake of the Seleucid defeat. The Hellenizing High Priest Menelaus was removed from office and executed. His successor was another Hellenizer Alcimus. When Alcimus executed sixty priests who were opposed to him, he found himself in open conflict with the Maccabees. Alcimus fled from Jerusalem and went to the Seleucid king, asking for help.
Meanwhile, Demetrius I Soter, son of Seleucus IV Philopator and nephew of the late Antiochus IV Epiphanes, fled from Rome in defiance of the Roman Senate and arrived in Syria. Declaring himself the rightful king, he captured and killed Lysias and Antiochus Eupator, taking the throne. It was thus Demetrius to whom the delegation, led by Alcimus, complained of the persecution of the Hellenist party in Judea. Demetrius granted Alcimus's request to be appointed High Priest under the protection of the king's army and sent to Judea an army led by Bacchides. The weaker Jewish army could not oppose the enemy and withdrew from Jerusalem, so Judah returned to wage guerrilla warfare. Soon after, the Seleucid Army needed to return to Antioch because of the turbulent political situation. Judah's forces returned to Jerusalem, and the Seleucids dispatched another army led by Nicanor. In a battle near Adasa, on the 13th Adar 161 BC, the Seleucid army was destroyed, and Nicanor was killed. The annual "Day of Nicanor" was instituted to commemorate this victory.
Agreement with Rome and death
The Roman–Jewish Treaty was an agreement made between Judah Maccabee and the Roman Republic in 161 BC according to 1 Maccabees 8:17–20 and Josephus. It was the first recorded contract between the Jewish people and the Romans.
The agreement with Rome failed to affect Demetrius' policy. On receiving the news of Nicanor's defeat, he dispatched a new army, again commanded by Bacchides. This time, the Seleucid forces of 20,000 men were numerically so superior that most of Judah's men left the battlefield and advised their leader to do likewise and await a more favorable opportunity. However, Judah decided to stand his ground.
In the Battle of Elasa, Judah and those who remained faithful to him were killed. His body was taken by his brothers from the battlefield and buried in the family sepulcher at Modiin. The death of Judah Maccabee (d. 160 BCE) stirred the Jews to renewed resistance. After several additional years of war under the leadership of two of Mattathias' other sons (Jonathan and Simon), the Jews finally achieved independence and the liberty to worship freely.
In the arts
Pre-19th century
As a warrior hero and national liberator, Judah Maccabee has inspired many writers, and several artists and composers. In the Divine Comedy, Dante sees his spirit in the Heaven of Mars with the other "heroes of the true faith". In Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost, he is enacted along with the other Nine Worthies, but heckled for sharing a name with Judas Iscariot. Most significant works dedicated solely to him date from the 17th century onwards. William Houghton's Judas Maccabaeus, performed in about 1601 but now lost, is thought to have been the first drama on the theme; however, Judas Macabeo, an early comedia by crucial Spanish playwright Pedro Calderón de la Barca, is extant. Fernando Rodríguez-Gallego details its history in his critical edition: the play was performed in the 1620s in different versions and finally published as part of an anthology by Vera Tassis in 1637. Following on its heels is El Macabeo (Naples, 1638), a Castilian epic by the Portuguese Marrano Miguel de Silveyra. Two other 17th-century works are La chevalerie de Judas Macabé, by French poet Pierre Du Ries,[7] and the anonymous Neo-Latin work Judas Machabaeus (Rome, 1695). Handel wrote his Judas Maccabaeus oratorio (1746) on the subject.
19th century
There has been interest in Judah in every century. Giuda Macabeo, ossia la morte di Nicanore... (1839) is an Italian "azione sacra" based on which Vallicella composed an oratorio. One of the best-known literary works on the theme is Judas Maccabaeus (1872), a five-act verse tragedy by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. A Hebrew version of Longfellow's play was published in 1900. Two later 19th-century interpretations of the story are Judas Makkabaeus, a novella by the German writer Josef Eduard Konrad Bischoff, which appeared in Der Gefangene von Kuestrin (1885), and The Hammer (1890), a book by Alfred J. Church and Richmond Seeley.
20th century
Several 20th-century Jewish authors have also written works devoted to Judah Maccabee and the Maccabean Revolt. Jacob Benjamin Katznelson (1855–1930) wrote the poem, "Alilot Gibbor ha-Yehudim Yehudah ha-Makkabi le-Veit ha-Hashmona'im" (1922); the Yiddish writer Moses Schulstein wrote the dramatic poem, "Yehudah ha-Makkabi" (in A Layter tsu der Zun, 1954); Jacob Fichman's "Yehudah ha-Makkabi" is one of the heroic tales included in Sippurim le-Mofet (1954). Amit Arad's historical novel "Lions of Judea – The miraculous story of the Maccabees" (2014). Many children's plays have also been written on the theme by various Jewish authors.
In addition, the American writer Howard Fast penned the historical novel, My Glorious Brothers, which was published in 1948, during the 1947–1949 Palestine war.
During World War II the Swiss-German writer Karl Boxler published his novel Judas Makkabaeus; ein Kleinvolk kaempft um Glaube und Heimat (1943), the subtitle of which suggests that Swiss democrats then drew a parallel between their own national hero, William Tell, and the leader of the Maccabean revolt against foreign tyranny.
The modern play Playing Dreidel with Judah Maccabee by Edward Einhorn is about a contemporary boy who meets the historical figure.[8]
Visual arts
In the medieval Christian art, Judah Maccabee was regarded as one of the heroes of the Old Testament. He figures in a tenth-century illustrated manuscript Libri Maccabaeorum. The late medieval French artist Jean Fouquet painted an illustration of Judah triumphing over his enemies for his famous manuscript of Josephus. Rubens painted Judah Maccabee praying for the dead; the painting illustrates an episode from 2 Maccabees 12:39–48 in which Judah's troops find stolen idolatrous charms on the corpses of Jewish warriors slain on the battlefield. He therefore offers prayers and an expiatory sacrifice for these warriors who have died in a state of sin. During the Counter-Reformation the passage was used by Catholics against Protestants in order to justify the doctrine of purgatory. Accordingly, Rubens painted the scene for the Chapel of the Dead in Tournai cathedral. In the 19th century, Paul Gustave Doré executed an engraving of Judah Maccabee victoriously pursuing the shattered troops of the Syrian enemy.
Music
In music, almost all the compositions inspired by the Hasmonean rebellion revolve around Judah. In 1746, the composer George Frideric Handel composed his oratorio Judas Maccabeus, putting the biblical story in the context of the Jacobite rising of 1745. This work, with libretto by Thomas Morell, had been written for the celebrations following the Duke of Cumberland's victory over the Scottish Jacobite rebels at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. The oratorio's most famous chorus is "See, the conqu'ring hero comes". The tune of this chorus was later adopted as a Christian Easter hymn tune Thine Be The Glory, Risen Conquering Son. A Hebrew translation of Handel's Judas Maccabee was prepared for the 1932 Maccabiah Games and is now popular in Israel with the motif of "conqu'ring hero" becoming a Hanukkah song. Beethoven composed a set of theme and variations 12 Variations on 'See the conqu'ring hero comes' for Cello and Piano, WoO 45.
Tom Lehrer refers to Judas Maccabeus in his song "Hanukkah in Santa Monica".
Mirah refers to Judah Maccabee in her song "Jerusalem".
In "The Goldbergs Mixtape", a parody song is named "Judah Macabee
Jonathan Apphus (Hebrew: יוֹנָתָן אַפְּפוּס Yōnāṯān ʾApfūs; Ancient Greek: Ἰωνάθαν Ἀπφοῦς, Iōnáthan Apphoûs) was one of the sons of Mattathias and the leader of the Hasmonean dynasty of Judea from 160 to 143 BCE.
Name
H J Wolf notes that all of Mattathias' sons listed in 1 Maccabees 2:2–5 had double names: John is said to have been called Gaddis; Simon, Thassi; Judas, Maccabeus; Eleazar, Avaran; and Jonathan, Apphus.[1] Jewish historian Uriel Rappaport writes that "we do not have an explanation for the nicknames of Mattathias' sons".[2] Wolf suggests that the name was given to him by Mattathias and that the common explanation of the word "Apphus" relates it to the Syriac choppus, "the dissembler". The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia's article on the Maccabees suggests the meaning is "the wary",[3] but Torrey (in the Encyclopedia Biblica article, "Maccabees") points out that we have no means of ascertaining with what guttural consonant the word began, or what Semitic consonant the Greek "s" represents, and so "both the form and meaning of the name are, therefore, still to be explained".[1]
Leader of the Jews
According to the narrative in 1 Maccabees, Jonathan Apphus was the youngest of the five sons of Mattathias.[citation needed] His father was a priest credited as the founding figure of the rebellion of the Maccabees against Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire. However Mattathias died in 167 BCE while the rebellion was only beginning.
He was survived by Jonathan and his brothers Eleazar Avaran, Johanan (John Gaddi), Judah Maccabee, and Simon Thassi. They were sworn to continue the rebellion of their father. Judah soon became their leader and the military chief of the rebellion.
Jonathan served under his brother and took active parts in the battles against the Seleucid forces. Judah fell in the Battle of Elasa (161/160 BCE) against Bacchides, a Seleucid general under Demetrius I Soter. Bacchides proceeded with crushing rigor against the Maccabean party while at the same time a famine broke out in the land. The Jewish rebels required a new leader and Jonathan was chosen.
Jonathan noticed that Bacchides was trying to entrap him. He reacted by retiring with his brothers Simon and John, and his followers to a desert region in the country east of the Jordan River. They set camp near a morass by the name of Asphar. But Bacchides followed him there and overtook them during Shabbat. Jonathan gave all the baggage into the hands of his brother John who took a small force and headed towards the friendly Nabataeans. The plan was to secure their baggage there but the "sons of Jambri of Medeba", a hostile tribe apparently, ambushed them during their journey. John and his companions were killed and their cargo was looted.[4] Subsequently, Jonathan was informed that one of the sons of Jambri was leading home a noble bride in great pomp, the Maccabean brothers proceeded to Medaba, ambushed the bridal procession, killed the entire party, to the number of 300, and seized all the treasure.[5]
Jonathan and his companions met Bacchides in battle at the River Jordan. Jonathan had encountered and had raised his hand to slay Bacchides, when the latter evaded the blow; the Jews, defeated, sought refuge by swimming through the Jordan to the eastern bank. In this battle Bacchides is reported to have lost either 1,000 or 2,000 men and he did not make another attempt to cross the river, instead returning to Jerusalem. Jonathan and his forces remained in the swamp in the country east of the Jordan.[6] Following the death of Alcimus, High Priest in Jerusalem sometime later, Bacchides left the country.[7]
Turn of fate
However Jonathan was not idle. He continued activities against the Jews influenced by the Hellenistic civilization. Two years after the departure of Bacchides from Judea, Acra felt sufficiently threatened to contact Demetrius and request the return of Bacchides to their territory.
Jonathan was now more experienced in guerrilla warfare, the primary tactic used by the Maccabean forces, and was constantly on guard to avoid direct confrontations with enemy forces even while continuing hostile operations. A frustrated Bacchides reportedly took out his anger on the Hellenists and reportedly killed fifty of their leaders out of frustration. Jonathan and Simeon thought it well to retreat farther, and accordingly fortified in the desert a place called Beth-hogla;[8] there they were besieged several days by Bacchides.
Jonathan perceived that Bacchides regretted having set out. He contacted the rival general with offers of a peace treaty and exchange of prisoners of war. Bacchides readily consented and even took an oath of nevermore making war upon Jonathan. He and his forces then vacated Judea. The victorious Jonathan now took up his residence in the old city of Michmash. From there he endeavored to clear the land of "the godless and the apostate".[9]
High Priest
Jonathan appears to have used this peaceful period to good advantage, for he was soon in possession of great power. An important external event brought the design of the Maccabeans to fruition. Demetrius I Soter's relations with Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon (reigned 159 - 138 BCE), Ptolemy VI of Egypt (reigned 163 - 145 BCE) and his co-ruler Cleopatra II of Egypt were deteriorating. They supported rival claimant to the throne Alexander Balas, who claimed to be the son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and a first cousin of Demetrius, against him.
Demetrius was now forced to recall the garrisons of Judea, except those at Jerusalem's Akra fortress and at Beth-zur; he also made a bid for the loyalty of Jonathan, whom he permitted to recruit an army and to take the hostages kept in the Akra fortress. Jonathan gladly accepted these terms and took up residence at Jerusalem in 153 BCE. He soon began fortifying the city.
Alexander Balas also contacted Jonathan with even more favorable terms. Including official appointment as High Priest in Jerusalem. Withdrawing his support from Demetrius and declaring allegiance to Alexander, Jonathan was the first member of his dynasty to achieve appointment as High Priest. The title was not merely nominal. Jonathan became the official leader of his people and the Hellenistic party could no longer attack him without severe consequences. On the Feast of Tabernacles of 152 BCE, Jonathan put on the High Priest's garments and officiated for the first time. It is unknown whom Jonathan displaced as High Priest, though some scholars suggest that this was the Teacher of Righteousness, later founder of the Essenes. In this theory, Jonathan is considered the "Wicked Priest".[10]
Jonathan had determined to side with Alexander Balas, not trusting Demetrius, who in a second letter made promises that he could hardly have kept and conceded prerogatives that were almost impossible.[11] Demetrius subsequently lost his throne and life in 150 BCE. Alexander Balas was victorious and sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire. He was given the further honor of marriage to Cleopatra Thea, daughter of his allies Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II.
The wedding took place in Ptolemais in the presence of Ptolemy VI. Jonathan was invited but arrived after the wedding ceremony while celebrations continued. He appeared with presents for both kings, and was permitted to sit between them as their equal; Balas even clothed him with his own royal garment and otherwise accorded him high honor. He would not listen to the Hellenistic party that still accused Jonathan, but appointed Jonathan as strategos and "meridarch" (i.e., civil governor of a province; details not found in Josephus), and sent him back with honors to Jerusalem.[12]
Victory over Apollonius
Jonathan proved grateful. In 147 BCE, Demetrius II Nicator, a son of Demetrius I Soter, started claiming the throne against Alexander Balas. Apollonius Taos, governor of Coele-Syria was probably supporting Demetrius. But he used the opportunity to challenge Jonathan to battle, saying that the Jews might for once leave the mountains and venture out into the plain.[13]
Jonathan and Simon led a force of 10,000 men against Jaffa where the forces of Apollonius lay. Not expecting an attack this early in the hostilities, Jaffa was not prepared for a siege, and the gates were opened before the Jewish forces out of fear.
But the victory was not yet certain. Apollonius received reinforcements from Azotus and appeared in the plain in charge of 3,000 men. They were clearly outnumbered, but Apollonius, relying on his superior cavalry, forced Jonathan to engage in battle. Jonathan assaulted, captured and, burned Azotus along with the resident temple of Dagon and the surrounding villages.
In reward of his victory, Alexander Balas granted the High Priest the city of Ekron, along with its outlying territory. The people of Azotus vainly complained to King Ptolemy VI, who had come to make war upon his son-in-law Alexander Balas, that Jonathan had destroyed their city and temple. Jonathan peacefully met Ptolemy at Jaffa and accompanied him as far as the River Eleutherus. He then returned to Jerusalem, maintaining peace with the King of Egypt despite their support for different contenders for the Seleucid throne.[14]
Under Demetrius II
In 145 BCE, the Battle of Antioch resulted in the final defeat of Alexander Balas by the forces of his father-in-law, Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy himself was however among the casualties of the battle. Demetrius II Nicator remained sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire and became the second husband of Cleopatra Thea.
Jonathan owed no allegiance to the new king, and took this opportunity to lay siege to the Seleucid fortress in Jerusalem and the symbol of Seleucid control over Judea. It was heavily garrisoned by a Seleucid force, and offered asylum to Jewish Hellenists.[15] Demetrius was very angry; he appeared with an army at Ptolemais, and ordered Jonathan to come before him. Without raising the siege, Jonathan, accompanied by the elders and priests, went to the king, and pacified him with presents, so that the king not only confirmed him in his office of high priest, but gave to him the three Samaritan toparchies of Mount Ephraim, Lod, and Ramathaim-Zophim. In exchange for 300 talents of silver, the entire country was exempted from taxes, the exemption being confirmed in a letter which is preserved by I Maccabees and Josephus.[16]
Soon, however, a new claimant to the Seleucid throne appeared in the young Antiochus VI Dionysus, son of Alexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea. He was three years old at most, but general Diodotus Tryphon used him to advance his own designs for the throne. In face of this new enemy, Demetrius promised to withdraw the garrison from Jerusalem, if Jonathan, who he now called his ally, would send troops. 3,000 of Jonathan's men protected Demetrius in his capital, Antioch, against his own subjects.[17]
Support for Tryphon
As Demetrius II did not keep his promise, Jonathan thought it better to support the new king when Diodotus Tryphon and Antiochus VI seized the capital. The latter confirmed all his rights and appointed his brother Simon strategos of the seacoast, from the "Ladder of Tyre" to the frontier of Egypt. Jonathan and Simon toured the region, removing Demetrius II's garrisons; Ashkelon submitted voluntarily, while Gaza was taken by force. Jonathan defeated a force of Demetrius II which invaded from the north, in the plain of Azor, and drove them back over the Eleutherius River. Meanwhile, Simon took the strong fortress of Beth Zur and replaced Demetrius II's garrison with his own.[18]
Sources report that Jonathan sought alliances with foreign peoples at this time. He renewed the treaty with the Roman Republic, and exchanged friendly messages with Sparta and other places.[19]
Capture by Diodotus Tryphon and death
In 143 BCE, Diodotus Tryphon went with an army to Judea and invited Jonathan to Scythopolis for a friendly conference, and persuaded him to dismiss his army of 40,000 men, promising to give him Ptolemais and other fortresses. Jonathan fell into the trap; he took with him to Ptolemais 1,000 men, all of whom were slain; he himself was taken prisoner.[20]
When Tryphon was about to enter Judea at Hadid, he was confronted by a battle-ready Simon. Tryphon, avoiding an engagement, demanded one hundred talents of silver and Jonathan's two sons as hostages, in return for which he promised to liberate Jonathan. Although Simon did not trust Tryphon, he complied with the request in order that he might not be accused of the death of his brother. Tryphon did not liberate his prisoner; angry that Simon blocked his way everywhere and that he could accomplish nothing, he executed Jonathan at Baskama, in the country east of the Jordan.[21] Jonathan was buried by Simon at Modi'in. Nothing is known of his two captive sons. One of his daughters was an ancestor of Josephus.[22]
Simon Thassi (Hebrew: שִׁמְעוֹן הַתַּסִּי Šīməʿōn haTassī; died 135 BC)[1] was the second son of Mattathias and the first prince of the Hasmonean dynasty. He reigned from 141 to 135 BCE.
Names
The name "Thassi" has a connotation of "the Wise", a title which can also mean "the Director", "the Guide", "the Man of Counsel", and "the Zealous".[2][3] This Simon is also sometimes distinguished as Simon the Hasmonean, Simon Maccabee, or (from Latin) Simon Maccabeus.
History
Simon took a prominent part in the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire led by his brothers, Judas Maccabaeus and Jonathan Apphus. The successes of the Jews rendered it expedient for the Seleucid leaders in Syria to show them special favour. Therefore, Antiochus VI appointed Simon strategos, or military commander, of the coastal region stretching from the Ladder of Tyre to Egypt. As strategos, Simon gained control of the cities of Beth-zur and Joppa, garrisoning them with Jewish troops, and built the fortress of Adida.[4]
After the capture of Jonathan by the Seleucid general Diodotus Tryphon, Simon was elected leader by the people, assembled at Jerusalem. He at once completed the fortification of the capital, and made Joppa secure.[5][6]
At Hadid he blocked the advance of Tryphon, who was attempting to enter the country and seize the throne of Syria. Realizing he could gain nothing by force, Tryphon demanded a ransom for Jonathan and for the release of Jonathan's sons as hostages. Although Simon was aware that Tryphon would deceive him, both Josephus and 1 Maccabees state that he acceded to both demands so that the people might see that he had done everything possible for his brother. Jonathan was nevertheless treacherously assassinated, and the hostages were not returned. Simon thus became the sole leader of the people.[4]
As an opponent of Diodotus Tryphon, Simon decided to side with the Seleucid king, Demetrius II, to whom he sent a deputation requesting freedom from taxation for the country. The fact that his request was granted implied recognition of the political independence of Judea in the year 142 BCE.
In 141 BCE, the Jews themselves issued a public decree at a large assembly "of the priests and the people and of the elders of the land, to the effect that Simon should be their leader and high priest forever, until there should arise a faithful prophet".[7] This when Simon Thassi became High Priest of Judaea and Ethnarch (Prince of Judaea).[4] He was the first prince of the Hasmonean dynasty, reigning from 141 to 134 BCE. Recognition of the new dynasty by the Roman Republic was accorded by the Senate about 139 BCE, when the delegation representing Simon was in Rome. Simon had made the Jewish people semi-independent of the Seleucid Empire.
In 134 BCE, Simon and his two sons Mattathias and Judah were assassinated at a banquet at Dok by his son-in-law Ptolemy, the Seleucid governor at Jericho, he was the last of the Maccabees to 'die with his boots on'. Simon's third son John Hyrcanus succeeded him as high priest and ruler of Judea but was unable to capture Ptolemy, initially because the latter held John's mother hostage, and subsequently because his army disbanded in observance of the custom at the time of resting every seventh year. Under Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE) Jewish independence was finally achieved.[1]
Legacy
Simon (and its Hebrew form, Simeon) would go on to become the most popular male name for some three centuries afterward in both the Hasmonean Kingdom and Roman Judaea. This was both to honor a Jewish hero who had attained independence for the Jewish state, as well as because "Simon" did not sound artificial or strange to Greek ears
John Hyrcanus (/hɜːrˈkeɪnəs/; Hebrew: יוחנן הרקנוס, romanized: Yoḥānān Hurqanos; Koine Greek: Ἰωάννης Ὑρκανός, romanized: Iōánnēs Hurkanós) was a Hasmonean (Maccabean) leader and Jewish High Priest of Israel of the 2nd century BCE (born 164 BCE, reigned from 134 BCE until he died in 104 BCE). In rabbinic literature he is often referred to as Yoḥanan Cohen Gadol (יוחנן כהן גדול), "John the High Priest".[a]
Name
Josephus explains in The Jewish War that John was also known as "Hyrcanus" but does not explain the reason behind this name. The only other primary sources—the Books of the Maccabees—never used this name for John. The single occurrence of the name Hyrcanus in 2 Maccabees 3:11 refers to a man to whom some of the money in the Temple belonged during the c. 178 BCE visit of Heliodorus.[1]
The reason for the name is disputed amongst biblical scholars, with a variety of reasons proposed:
- Familial origin in the region of Hyrcania on the Caspian Sea[2]
- A Greek regnal name, which would have represented closer ties with the Hellenistic culture against which the Maccabees had revolted under Seleucid rule. However, the region of Hyrcania had been conquered by Mithridates I of Parthia in 141–139 BCE
- Given the name by the Seleucids after he fought in the region alongside Antiochus VII Sidetes against Phraates II of Parthia in 130–129 BCE, a campaign which resulted in the release of Antiochus' brother Demetrius II Nicator from captivity in Hyrcania
Life and work
He was the son of Simon Thassi and hence the nephew of Judas Maccabeus, Jonathan Apphus and their siblings, whose story is told in the deuterocanonical books of 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees, in the Talmud, and in Josephus. John was not present at a banquet at which his father and his two brothers were murdered by John's brother-in-law, Ptolemy son of Abubus. He attained his father's former offices of High Priest and ethnarch, but not king.[3] Josephus said that John Hyrcanus had five sons but he named only four in his histories: Judah Aristobulus I, Antigonus I, Alexander Jannai, and Absalom. It is the fifth brother who is said to have unsuccessfully sought the throne at the death of Aristobulus I according to Antiquities of the Jews 13.12.1.
Siege of Jerusalem
During the first year of John Hyrcanus's reign, he faced a serious challenge to Judean independence from the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus VII Sidetes marched into Judea, pillaged the countryside, and laid what became a year-long siege of Jerusalem. The prolonged siege caused Hyrcanus to remove any Judean from the city who could not assist with the defence effort (Antiquities 13.240). These refugees were not allowed to pass through Antiochus’ lines, becoming trapped in the middle of a chaotic siege. Facing a humanitarian crisis, Hyrcanus re-admitted his estranged Jerusalemites when the festival of Sukkot arrived. Then, as food shortages in Jerusalem became severe, Hyrcanus negotiated a truce with Antiochus.[4]
The terms of the truce required payment of 3,000 talents of silver to Antiochus, the dismantling of the walls of Jerusalem, Judean participation in the Seleucid war against the Parthians, and renewed Judean recognition of Seleucid control (Antiquities 13.245). These terms were a harsh blow to Hyrcanus, who had to loot the tomb of David to pay the 3,000 talents (The Wars of the Jews I 2:5).
Under Seleucid control (133–128 BCE)
Following the Seleucid siege, Judea faced tough economic times which were magnified by taxes to the Seleucids enforced by Antiochus. Furthermore, Hyrcanus was forced to accompany Antiochus on his eastern campaign in 130 BCE. Hyrcanus probably functioned as the military commander of a Jewish company in the campaign.[5] It is reported that Antiochus, out of consideration for the religion of his Jewish allies, at one point ordered a two days' halt of the entire army to allow them to avoid breaking the Sabbath and the festival of Shavuot.[6]
This enforced absence probably caused a loss of support for the inexperienced Hyrcanus among the Judean population.[7] Judeans in the countryside were especially disillusioned with Hyrcanus after Antiochus’ army plundered their land. John Hyrcanus's expulsion of the non-military population of Jerusalem during the siege had probably caused resentment, and his looting of the Tomb of David violated his obligations as High Priest, which would have offended the religious leadership.[8]
Therefore, at an early point in his 31-year reign, Hyrcanus had lost support from Judeans in various cultural sectors. The Jerusalemites, the rural Judeans, and the religious leadership probably doubted the future of Judea under Hyrcanus. However in 128 BCE Antiochus VII was killed in battle against Parthia. What followed was an era of conquest led by Hyrcanus that marked the high point of Judea as the most significant power in the Levant.[9]
Conquests
John Hyrcanus took advantage of unrest in the Seleucid Empire to reassert Judean independence and acquire new territories. In 130 BCE Demetrius II, the former Seleucid king, returned from exile in Hyrcania to resume the government of his empire. However the transition of power made it difficult for Demetrius to reassert control over Judea.,[10] and the Seleucid Empire also lost control of other principalities. The Ituraeans of Lebanon, the Ammonites of the Transjordan, and the Arabian Nabateans were among these.[11] Hyrcanus determined to take advantage of the dissipation of the Seleucid Empire to enlarge the Judean State.
Hyrcanus raised a new mercenary army that differed from the Judean forces that had been defeated by Antiochus VII (Ant.13.249). The Judean population was probably still recovering from the attack of Antiochus, and therefore could not provide enough able men for a new army.[10] The new army was funded with more treasure that Hyrcanus removed from the Tomb of David.[12]
Beginning in 113 BCE, Hyrcanus began an extensive military campaign against Samaria. Hyrcanus placed his sons Antigonus and Aristobulus in charge of the siege of Samaria. The Samaritans called for help and eventually received 6,000 troops from Antiochus IX Cyzicenus. Although the siege lasted for a long, difficult year, Hyrcanus did not give up. Ultimately Samaria was overrun and devastated. Cyzicenus' mercenary army was defeated and the city of Scythopolis seems to have been occupied by Hyrcanus as well.[13] The inhabitants of Samaria were enslaved. Upon conquering former Seleucid regions Hyrcanus implemented a policy of compelling the non-Jewish populations to adopt Jewish customs.[14][15]
John Hyrcanus's first conquest was an invasion of the Transjordan in 110 BCE.[16] John Hyrcanus's mercenary army laid siege to the city of Medeba and took it after a six-month siege. After these victories, Hyrcanus went north towards Shechem and Mount Gerizim. The city of Shechem was reduced to a village and the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim was destroyed.[14] This military action against Shechem has been dated archaeologically around 111–110 BCE.[17] Destroying the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim helped ameliorate John Hyrcanus's standing among religious elite and common Jews who detested any temple to God outside of Jerusalem.
Hyrcanus also initiated a military campaign against the Idumeans (Edomites). During this campaign Hyrcanus conquered Adora, Maresha and other Idumean towns (Ant.13.257). Hyrcanus then instituted forced conversions of the Idumeans to Judaism.[18] This was an unprecedented measure for a Judean ruler; it was the first instance of forced conversion perpetrated by Jews in recorded history.[19] However, some scholars dispute the narrative of forced conversion and believe that the Edomites peacefully assimilated in Judean society.[20]
Economy, foreign relations, and religion
After the siege of Jerusalem, Hyrcanus faced a serious economic crisis in Judea, although the economic difficulties probably subsided after the death of Antiochus VII, since Hyrcanus no longer had to pay taxes or tributes to a weaker Seleucid Empire.[21] The economic situation eventually improved enough for Hyrcanus to issue his own coinage (see below). On top of that, Hyrcanus initiated vital building projects in Judea. Hyrcanus re-built the walls destroyed by Antiochus. He also built a fortress north of the Temple called the Baris and possibly also the fortress Hyrcania.[22]
Moreover, out of desperation, Hyrcanus sought for good relations with the surrounding Gentile powers, especially the growing Roman Republic. Two decrees were passed in the Roman Senate that established a treaty of friendship with Judea.[23] Although it is difficult to specifically date these resolutions, they represent efforts made between Hyrcanus and Rome to maintain stable relations. Also, an embassy sent by Hyrcanus received Roman confirmation of Hasmonean independence.[24] Hyrcanus was an excellent case of a ruler backed by Roman support.
In addition to Rome, Hyrcanus was able to maintain steady relations with Ptolemaic Egypt. This was probably made possible due to various Jews living in Egypt who had connections with the Ptolemaic Court (Ant. 13.284–287). Finally, the cities of Athens and Pergamon even showed honor to Hyrcanus in an effort to appease Rome.[25]
Furthermore, the minting of coins by Hyrcanus demonstrates John Hyrcanus's willingness to delegate power. Sixty-three coins found near Bethlehem bear the inscription, "Yohanan the High Priest." The reserve side of the coins contains the phrase, "The Assembly of the Jews." This seems to suggest that during his reign, Hyrcanus was not an absolute ruler. Instead, Hyrcanus had to submit at times to an assembly of Jews that had a certain amount of minority power.[26] The coins lack any depictions of animals or humans. This suggests that Hyrcanus strictly followed the Jewish prohibition against graven images. The coins also seem to suggest that Hyrcanus considered himself to be primarily the High Priest of Judea, and his rule of Judea was shared with the Assembly.[27]
In Judea, religious issues were a core aspect of domestic policy. Josephus only reports one specific conflict between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees, who asked him to relinquish the position of High Priest (Ant. 13.288–296).[28] After this falling-out, Hyrcanus sided with the rivals of the Pharisees, the Sadducees. However, elsewhere Josephus reports that the Pharisees did not grow to power until the reign of Queen Salome Alexandra (JW.1.110) The coins minted under Hyrcanus suggest that Hyrcanus did not have complete secular authority. Furthermore, this account may represent a piece of Pharisaic apologetics due to Josephus's Pharisaic background.[29] Regardless, there were probably tensions because of the religious and secular leadership roles held by Hyrcanus.
Ultimately, one of the final acts of John Hyrcanus's life was an act that solved any kind of dispute over his role as High Priest and ethnarch. In the will of Hyrcanus, he provisioned for the division of the high priesthood from secular authority. John Hyrcanus's widow was given control of civil authority after his death, and his son Judas Aristobulus was given the role of High Priest. This action represented John Hyrcanus's willingness to compromise over the issue of secular and religious authority.[30] (However, Aristobulus was not satisfied with this arrangement, so he cast his mother into prison and let her starve.)
The Tomb of Hyrcanus was, according to Josephus, located near the Towers' Pool (also known as Hezekiah's Pool) northwest of the present Jaffa Gate.[31] During the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, Titus selected the area opposite the tomb to begin his assault on the city's third wall.[31]
Legacy
John Hyrcanus the High Priest is remembered in rabbinic literature as having made several outstanding enactments and deeds worthy of memorial, one of which being that he cancelled the requirement of saying the avowal mentioned in Deuteronomy 26:12–15 once in every three years, since he saw that in Israel they had ceased to separate the First Tithe in its proper manner and which, by making the avowal, and saying "I have hearkened to the voice of the Lord my God, and have done according to all that you have commanded me," he makes himself dishonest before his Maker and liable to God's wrath.[32] In his days, the First Tithe, which was meant to be given unto the Levites, was given instead to the priests of Aaron's lineage, after Ezra had fined the Levites for not returning in full force to the Land of Israel. By not being able to give the First Tithe unto the Levites, as originally commanded by God, this made the avowal null and void.[33] In addition, John Hyrcanus is remembered for having cancelled the reading of Psalm 44:23, formerly chanted daily by the Levites in the Temple precincts, and which words, "Awake! Why do you sleep, O Lord?, etc.", seemed inappropriate, as if they were imposing their own will over God's, or that God was actually sleeping.[34] In similar fashion, the High Priest cancelled an ill-practice had by the people to cause bleeding near the eyes of sacrificial calves by beating their heads so as to stun them, prior to their being bound and slaughtered, since by beating the animal in such a way they ran the risk of causing a blemish in the animal's membrane lining its brain.[35] To prevent this from happening, the High Priest made rings in the ground of the Temple court for helping to secure the animals before slaughter.
Before John Hyrcanus officiated as Israel's High Priest, the people had it as a practice to do manual work on the intermediate days of the Jewish holidays, and one could hear in Jerusalem the hammer pounding against the anvil. The High Priest passed an edict restricting such labours on those days, thinking it inappropriate to do servile work on the Hol ha-Moed, until after the Feast (Yom Tov). It had also been a custom in Israel, since the days that the Hasmoneans defeated the Grecians who prevented them from mentioning the name of God in heaven, to inscribe the name of God in their ordinary contracts, bills of sale and promissory notes. They would write, for example, "In the year such and such of Yohanan, the High Priest of the Most High God." But when the Sages of Israel became sensible of the fact that such ordinary contracts were often discarded in the rubbish after reimbursement, it was deemed improper to show disrespect to God's name by doing so. Therefore, on the 3rd day of the lunar month Tishri, the practice of writing God's name in ordinary contracts was cancelled altogether, while the date of such cancellation was declared a day of rejoicing, and inscribed in the Scroll of Fasting.[36]
The Mishnah (Parah 3:4[5]) also relates that during the tenure of John Hyrcanus as High Priesthood, he had prepared the ashes of two Red heifers used in purifying those who had contracted corpse uncleanness.[37]
In what is seen as yet another one of John Hyrcanus's accomplishments, during his days any commoner or rustic could be trusted in what concerns Demai-produce (that is, if a doubt arose over whether or not such produce bought from him had been correctly divested of its tithes), since even the common folk in Israel were careful to separate the Terumah-offering given to the priests. Still, such produce required its buyer to separate the First and Second Tithes.[38] Some view this as also being a discredit unto the High Priest, seeing that the commoners refused to separate these latter tithes because of being intimidated by bullies, who took these tithes from the public treasuries by force, while John Hyrcanus refused to censure such bad conduct.[39]
In the later years of his life, John Hyrcanus abandoned the sect of the Pharisees and joined the Sadducees. This prompted the famous rabbinic dictum: "Do not believe in yourself until your dying day."[40] At his death, a monument (Hebrew: נפשיה דיוחנן כהן גדול) was built in his honour and where his bones were interred. The monument was located in what was outside the walls of the city at that time, but by Josephus' time was between the second[b] and third[c] walls of Jerusalem, and where the Romans had built a bank of earthworks to break into the newer third wall encompassing the upper city, directly opposite John's monument.
Judah Aristobulus I, or Aristobulus I (/ˌærɪstəˈbjuːləs/; Greek: Ἀριστόβουλος, romanized: Aristóboulos), was the High Priest of Israel and the first Hasmonean king of Judaea, reigning from 104 BCE until his death the next year, 103 BCE. He was the eldest of the five sons of John Hyrcanus, the previous leader.[1] The Roman-Jewish historian Josephus states that he was the first Jew in "four hundred and eighty-three years and three months" to have established a monarchy since the return from the Babylonian captivity.[2] Aristobulus was the first Hebrew king to claim both the high priesthood and the kingship. The Sadducees and the Essenes were not concerned about Aristobulus taking the title of king, but the Pharisees, believing that the kingship could only be held by the descendants of the Davidic line, strongly opposed this. They launched a massive rebellion, but Aristobulus died before any attempt to depose him could be made.[3]
The major sources on Aristobulus's life from antiquity are Josephus's The Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews.[4] His reign is particularly noted for the Judaization of Galilee and the native Semitic people called the Ituraeans. Josephus, quoting from Strabo's Historica Hypomnemata, described Aristobulus's regime as kindly and "very serviceable to the Jews" on account of his conquests and the integration of "a portion of the Ituraean nation whom he joined to them by the bond of circumcision."[5]
Etymology
The name Aristobulus is of Greek origin and is an epithet meaning "best-advising."[6] Aristobulus I was the first Hasmonean to adopt the name,[4] but his Hebrew name was Judah.[7] He was also referred to as Philhellene, meaning he was an admirer of Greek culture.[8] Josephus does not explain why he was called this.[9]
Early campaigns and monarchy established
Aristobulus and his brother Antigonus were entrusted by their father, John Hyrcanus, with the conquest of Samaria. They laid siege to the city, and when the inhabitants requested aid from the Seleucid Empire, they defeated a relief army led by Antiochus IX Cyzicenus.[10] Antiochus successfully escaped to Scythopolis, but the brothers captured Samaria towards the end of John's reign, razing the city and enslaving its inhabitants.[10][11] Their forces subsequently captured Scythopolis and the entire region south of Mount Carmel.[11]
According to John Hyrcanus's instructions, the country was to be placed in the hands of his wife after his death, and Aristobulus was originally to receive only the high priesthood. Instead, Aristobulus had his mother imprisoned, where she starved to death, thereby securing for himself both the high priesthood and the kingship.[12] He then imprisoned all of his brothers, except for Antigonus, to protect himself from possible familial retaliation.[1]
Josephus does not name Hyrcanus's wife.[13] He states that Aristobulus and Antigonus were the eldest of the five brothers, with Aristobulus being the firstborn. The other three were Alexander Jannaeus, Absalom, and a fifth brother, whom Josephus mentions but does not name.[4]
Conquest of Galilee
Aristobulus went to war against the Ituraeans and took territory from them. The conquered Ituraeans were compelled to accept Jewish law and circumcision to remain on their land.[5] The Ituraeans were an Arab tribe that expanded southwards from the Lebanese Beq'a into the Golan Heights and Mount Hermon in the fourth century BCE following the collapse of the Seleucid Empire.[14] They are first mentioned in Josephus's Antiquities 13.319 during Aristobulus I's conquest, where Josephus writes, "He brought over to them a portion of the Ituraean nation."[5]
Josephus's Antiquities 13.319 is a quote from Strabo's Historica Hypomnemata, originally written by Timagenes, and states, "This man was a kindly person and very serviceable to the Jews, for he acquired additional territory for them and brought over to them a portion of the Ituraean nation, whom he joined to them by the bond of circumcision." This passage has been generally accepted as evidence of Josephus's reliance on Strabo and Timagenes's writings.[15] The exact location of the confrontation and the territory that the Ituraeans occupied are unknown. Most scholars assume the Ituraean territory to be northern Galilee.[16] According to Kenneth Atkinson, there is no evidence of forced Judaization in Galilee during Aristobulus's reign.[17]
Death and successor
Feast of Tabernacles
With sudden abdominal pains, Aristobulus's health gradually deteriorated, compelling him to return to his palace during the festival of Sukkot. His brother Antigonus eventually returned to Jerusalem to celebrate the festival at the Temple. Unfamiliar with ceremonial festivities, Antigonus arrived armed with escorting soldiers.[8] According to Kenneth Atkinson, Antigonus had returned from a successful, unspecified military campaign. He further states that Josephus did not mention the location of the campaign. Atkinson presumes it to be Galilee since Antigonus had fine armour and military decorations procured in the region, as stated in Josephus's Jewish War 1.76.[18]
In his morbid state, Aristobulus fell prey to the factious influence of his wife, Queen Salome Alexandra, and conspirators. They had spread rumours about Antigonus attempting to seize the throne once he was seen in armour at the festival. Wearing a military uniform was considered unorthodox during the occasion.[8] Aristobulus was then informed by "evil men" that his brother was sending soldiers to murder him, and Aristobulus became estranged from Antigonus after hearing this rumour. Believing the report, he lowered himself into the fortified citadel Baris, which was besieged and had defensive towers.[19]
Death of Antigonus and Aristobulus
The queen, contemplating the possibility of being tortured and killed if Antigonus became king once Aristobulus died from his deteriorating health, deliberately advised Antigonus to enter, armed, into a meeting with his brother. However, he had been summoned to address suspicions of conspiracy against his brother's life. The queen had bribed the messenger whom Aristobulus had sent to his brother; she altered the original message. Instead of having Antigonus arrive at his brother's palace unarmed, she suggested that Antigonus should wear his new body armour, which he had made in Galilee as a presentation upon Aristobulus's request. Incensed with suspicion at finding his brother armed, Aristobulus killed him. In frantic regret at this rash execution, Aristobulus's health drastically declined until his death shortly thereafter.[8] Queen Salome then released Aristobulus's brothers, selecting Alexander Jannaeus as the next king.[20]
Coinage
The minting of Hasmonean coins did not commence until the leadership of John Hyrcanus. Like his father, Aristobulus minted his coins solely with the title of high priesthood, using Hebrew inscriptions. It was not until Alexander Jannaeus that both the roles of kingship and high priesthood were minted onto the coins.[21]
The majority of Aristobulus's coins were discovered primarily in the regions of Galilee and Golan, with the largest quantity originating from Gamla.[22] By 2016, archaeologists had unearthed thirty coins at Gamla, the largest quantity to date.[23] Most of these coins were minted during his actual reign, while a small number were minted afterward.[22]
The numismatic evidence does not suggest that Aristobulus assumed the title of king.[7] There is also the possibility that the coins could be attributed to Aristobulus II (67–63 BCE), who was also a king and high priest.[7] However, the longstanding debate has leaned more towards Aristobulus I, as new numismatic evidence indicates that Aristobulus I had his coins minted with the name "Judah".[13]
Due to his short reign of one year, only a small number of coins bearing the name "Judah" are available. Ya'akov Meshorer categorised them into two groups. Twenty coins are inscribed with "Jehudah the high priest and the assembly of the Jews", and another seven with the same inscriptions. Each coin has a value of one prutah and bears the inscriptions in a wreath. On the opposite side, there is a cornucopia with pomegranates between them.[24] The inscriptions on his coins are almost identical to those on the coins of his father and his brother Alexander Jannaeus.[13]
Doubts concerning Josephus's assertion that Aristobulus was the first Hasmonean monarch are indicated by his coins, which do not contain the title of "king."[13] Josephus's statement also conflicts with Strabo, who states that Alexander Jannaeus was the first king rather than a high priest. However, no Hasmonean relinquished the high priesthood in favour of the kingship.[25]
According to Kenneth Atkinson, Alexander Jannaeus faced opposition for having the kingship title minted on his coins. Alexander had many of those coins overstruck to replace the kingship title with that of the high priesthood. Atkinson considers the overstruck coins as evidence that the title of "king" was still problematic during Alexander's reign. Atkinson concludes that "the absence of any royal designation on Aristobulus's coins does not indicate that he was never an actual monarch."[13]
Legacy and historical debates
The brief yet impactful reign of Aristobulus I left a lasting imprint on the Hasmonean dynasty, sparking historical debates about his true status as a monarch. While Josephus asserts that Aristobulus was the first Hasmonean king, numismatic evidence complicates this claim. The coins minted during Aristobulus's rule do not bear the title of "king," fueling doubts about his royal status. This discrepancy aligns with conflicting accounts from Strabo, who credits Alexander Jannaeus as the inaugural Hasmonean king. The enduring debate hinges on the intricacies of Hasmonean leadership, with scholars pondering whether Aristobulus held both the high priesthood and kingship simultaneously. The absence of the royal designation on his coins, reminiscent of the later hesitancy seen in Alexander Jannaeus's reign, adds a layer of complexity to understanding the political dynamics within Hasmonean rule.
Historical significance and religious tensions
The dual assertion of high priesthood and kingship by Aristobulus I not only fueled debates among historians but also heightened religious tensions during his reign. The Pharisees, staunch believers in the Davidic lineage as the rightful kings, vehemently opposed Aristobulus's claims to the throne. This ideological conflict resulted in a massive rebellion initiated by the Pharisees, seeking to depose Aristobulus. However, his untimely death pre-empted any resolution to this religious and political turmoil. The clash between traditionalist Pharisees and the Hasmonean monarch set the stage for subsequent power struggles within the Jewish community, contributing to the complex socio-political landscape of the time. Thus, the legacy of Aristobulus I extends beyond the numismatic uncertainties, encompassing the intricate interplay between religious convictions and political ambitions that characterised this pivotal period in Judean history.
Alexander Jannaeus (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος Ἰανναῖος Aléxandros Iannaîos,[1] English: "Alexander Jannaios", usually Latinised to "Alexander Jannaeus"; Hebrew: יַנַּאי Yannaʾy;[2] born Jonathan יהונתן) was the second king of the Hasmonean dynasty, who ruled over an expanding kingdom of Judaea from 103 to 76 BCE. A son of John Hyrcanus, he inherited the throne from his brother Aristobulus I, and married his brother's widow, Queen Salome Alexandra. From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been described as cruel and oppressive with never-ending conflict.[3] The major historical sources of Alexander's life are Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War.[4]
Under Alexander Jannaeus, the Hasmonean kingdom reached its greatest territorial extent, encompassing most of Palestine's Mediterranean coastline and the regions surrounding the Jordan River. His reign was defined by nearly continuous conflict, including campaigns against Hellenistic cities, Nabataean forces in the east, and Seleucid armies in the north. Domestically, he faced fierce opposition, particularly from the Pharisees, due to his autocratic rule, reliance on mercenaries, heavy taxation, and controversial religious policies. These tensions culminated in a violent civil war and the mass execution of his opponents. He died around 76 BCE during the siege of Ragaba and was succeeded as ruler by his wife, Salome Alexandra.
Family
Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of John Hyrcanus by his second wife. When Aristobulus I, Hyrcanus' son by his first wife, became king, he deemed it necessary for his own security to imprison his half-brother. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year. Upon his death, his widow, Salome Alexandra had Alexander and his brothers released from prison. One of these brothers is said to have unsuccessfully sought the throne.
Alexander, as the oldest living brother, had the right not only to the throne, but also to Salome, the widow of his deceased brother, who had died childless. Although she was thirteen years older than him, he married her in accordance with the Jewish law of levirate marriage. By her he had two sons: the eldest, Hyrcanus II, became high priest in 62 BCE; and Aristobulus II, who was high priest from 66 – 62 BCE and started a bloody civil war with his brother, ending in his capture by Pompey the Great.
Like his brother, Alexander was an avid supporter of the aristocratic priestly faction known as the Sadducees. His wife Salome came from a Pharisaic family. Her brother was Simeon ben Shetach, a famous Pharisee leader. Salome was more sympathetic to their cause, and protected them throughout his turbulent reign.
Like his father, Alexander served as high priest. This raised the ire of the Pharisees, who insisted that these two offices should not be combined. According to the Talmud, Alexander was a questionable desecrated priest, rumour had it that his mother was captured in Modi'in and violated, and, in the opinion of the Pharisees, was not allowed to serve in the temple. This infuriated the king and he sided with the Sadducees who defended him. This incident led the king to turn against the Pharisees, and he persecuted them until his death.[5]
War with Ptolemy Lathyrus
Alexander's first expedition was against the city of Ptolemais. While Alexander went ahead to besiege the city, Zoilus of Dora took the opportunity to see if he could relieve Ptolemais in hopes of establishing his rule over coastal territories. Alexander's Hasmonean army quickly defeated Zoilus's forces. Ptolemais then requested aid from Ptolemy IX Lathyros, who had been banished by his mother Cleopatra III. Ptolemy had founded a kingdom in Cyprus after being cast out by his mother.[6]
The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt by sea. An individual named Demaenetus convinced the inhabitants of their imprudence in requesting Ptolemy's assistance. They realised that by allying themselves with Ptolemy, they had unintentionally declared war on Cleopatra. When Ptolemy arrived at the city, the inhabitants denied him access.[6]
Alexander too didn't want to be involved in a war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy, so he abandoned his campaign against Ptolemais and returned to Jerusalem. After offering Ptolemy four hundred talents and a peace treaty in return for Zoilus's death, Alexander met him with treachery by negotiating an alliance with Cleopatra. Once he had formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Alexander continued his conquests by capturing the coastal cities of Dora and Straton's Tower.[7]
As soon as Ptolemy learned of Alexander's scheme, he was determined to kill him. Ptolemy put Ptolemais under siege, but left his generals to attack the city, while he continued to pursue Alexander. Ptolemy's pursuit caused much destruction in the Galilee region. Here he captured Asochis on the Sabbath, taking ten thousand people as prisoners. Ptolemy also initiated an unsuccessful attack on Sepphoris.[7]
Battle of Asophon
Ptolemy and Alexander engaged in battle at Asophon near the Jordan River. Estimated to have fifty to eighty thousand soldiers, Alexander's army consisted of both Jews and pagans. At the head of his armed forces were his elite pagan mercenaries. They were specialised in Greek-style phalanx. One of Ptolemy's commanders, Philostephanus, began the first attack by crossing the river that divided both forces.[8]
The Hasmoneans had the advantage. Philostephanus held back a certain amount of his forces whom he sent to recover lost ground. Perceiving them as vast reinforcements, Alexander's army fled. Some of his retreating forces tried to push back, but quickly dispersed as Ptolemy's forces pursued Alexander's fleeing army. Thirty to fifty thousand Hasmonean soldiers died.[8]
Ptolemy's forces at Ptolemais succeeded in capturing the city. He then continued to conquer much of the Hasmonean kingdom, occupying the entirety of northern Judea, the coast, and territories east of the Jordan River. While doing so, he pillaged villages and ordered his soldiers to cannibalise women and children to create psychological fear in his enemies. At the time, Salome Alexandra was notified of Cleopatra's approach to Judea.[9]
Intervention of Cleopatra III
Realising that her son had amassed a formidable force in Judea, Cleopatra appointed Jewish generals Ananias and Chelkias to command her forces. She went with a fleet towards Judea. When Cleopatra arrived at Ptolemais, the people refused her entry, so she besieged the city. Ptolemy, believing Syria was defenseless, withdrew to Cyprus after his miscalculation. While in pursuit of Ptolemy, Chelkias died in Coele-Syria.[10]
The war abruptly came to an end with Ptolemy fleeing to Cyprus. Alexander then approached Cleopatra. Bowing before her, he requested to retain his rule. Cleopatra was urged by her subordinates to annex Judea. Ananias demanded she consider the residential Egyptian Jews who were the main support of her throne. This induced Cleopatra to modify her longings for Judea. Alexander met her demands and suspended his campaigns. These negotiations took place at Scythopolis. Cleopatra died five years later. Confident, after her death, Alexander found himself free to continue with new campaigns.[11]
Transjordan and coastal conquest
Alexander captured Gadara and fought to capture the strong fortress of Amathus in the Transjordan region, but was defeated.[12] He was more successful in his expedition against the coastal cities, capturing Raphia and Anthedon. In 96 BCE, Jannaeus defeated the inhabitants of Gaza. This victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet of the main Nabataean trade route.[13] Alexander initially returned his focus back to the Transjordan region where, avenging his previous defeat, he destroyed Amathus.[14]
Battle of Gaza
Determined to proceed with future campaigns despite his initial defeat at Amathus, Alexander set his focus on Gaza. A victory against the city wasn't so easily achieved. Gaza's general Apollodotus strategically employed a night attack against the Hasmonean army. With a force of two thousand less-skilled soldiers and ten thousand slaves, Gaza's military was able to deceive the Hasmonean army into believing they were being attacked by Ptolemy. The Gazans killed many and the Hasmonean army fled the battle. When morning exposed the delusive tactic, Alexander continued his assault but lost a thousand additional soldiers.[15]
The Gazans remained defiant in hopes that the Nabataean kingdom would come to their aid. The city eventually suffered defeat due to its own leadership. Gaza at the time was governed by two brothers, Lysimachus and Apollodotus. Lysimachus convinced the people to surrender, and Alexander peacefully entered the city. Though he at first seemed peaceful, Alexander suddenly turned against the inhabitants. Some men killed their wives and children out of desperation, to ensure they wouldn't be captured and enslaved. Others burned down their homes to prevent the soldiers from plundering. The town council and five hundred civilians took refuge at the Temple of Apollo, where Alexander had them massacred.[15]
Judean Civil War
War with Obodas I
The Judean Civil War initially began after the conquest of Gaza around 96 BCE. Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza, the Nabataean kingdom no longer had direct access to the Mediterranean Sea. Alexander soon captured Gadara, which together with the loss of Gaza caused the Nabataeans to lose their main trade routes leading to Rome and Damascus. After losing Gadara, the Nabataean king Obodas I launched an attack against Alexander in a steep valley at Gadara, where Alexander barely managed to escape. After his defeat in the Battle of Gadara, Jannaeus returned to Jerusalem, and was met with fierce Jewish opposition.[16]
Feast of Tabernacles
During the Jewish holiday Sukkot, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his displeasure against the Pharisees by refusing to perform the water libation ceremony properly: instead of pouring it on the altar, he poured it on his feet. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting him with etrogim (citrons).[17] They made the situation worse by insulting him. They called him a descendant of a captive woman and unsuitable to hold office and to sacrifice. Outraged, he killed six thousand people. Alexander also had wooden barriers built around the altar and the temple preventing people from going near him. Only the priests were permitted to enter.[18] This incident during the Feast of Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to the Judean Civil War.[17]
War with Demetrius III and conclusion of the Civil War
After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces with Demetrius III Eucaerus to fight against Jannaeus. Alexander had gathered six thousand two hundred mercenaries and twenty thousand Jews for battle. Demetrius had forty thousand soldiers and three thousand horses. There were attempts from both sides to persuade each other to abandon positions, but were unsuccessful. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus at Shechem, and all of Alexander's mercenaries were killed in battle.[19]
This defeat forced Alexander to take refuge in the mountains. In sympathy towards Jannaeus, six thousand Judean rebels ultimately returned to him. In fear of this news, Demetrius withdrew. War between Jannaeus and the rebels who returned to him continued. They fought until Alexander achieved victory. Most of the rebels died in battle, while the remaining rebels fled to the city of Bethoma until they were defeated.[19]
Jannaeus had brought the surviving rebels back to Jerusalem where he had eight hundred Jews, primarily Pharisees, crucified. Before their deaths, Alexander had the rebels' wives and children executed before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines.[19] The Nahum Commentary, a sectarian text from Qumran, refers to the execution of opponents by a figure identified by scholars as Alexander Jannaeus, portrayed as the "Lion of Wrath" who hanged members of the group called the "Seekers-after-smooth-things" (דורשי החלקות), understood to be the Pharisees, for seeking support from "Demetrius king of Greece".[20] Excavations at the modern-day Russian Compound in Jerusalem uncovered a sealed cistern containing the remains of at least 124 individuals, many exhibiting signs of decapitation and deliberate trauma, with no evidence of resistance or combat. According to the excavators, the burial may reflect a massacre of civilians carried out by Alexander Jannaeus.[21]
Alexander later returned the land he had seized in Moab and Galaaditis from the Nabataeans in order to have them end their support for the Jewish rebels. The remaining rebels who numbered eight thousand, fled by night in fear of Alexander. Afterward, all rebel hostility ceased and Alexander's reign continued undisturbed.[19]
Final campaigns
From 83 to 80 BCE, Alexander continued campaigning in the east. The Nabataean king Aretas III managed to defeat Alexander in battle. However, Alexander continued expanding the Hasmonean kingdom into Transjordan. In Gaulanitis, he captured the cities of Golan, Seleucia, and Gamala. In Galaaditis, the cities of Pella, Dium, and Gerasa. Alexander had Pella destroyed because its inhabitants refused to Judaize.[22]
He is believed to have expanded and fortified the Hasmonean palace near Jericho.[23]
Death
For the last three years of his life, Alexander Jannaeus suffered from the combined effects of alcoholism and quartan ague (malaria).[22]
After a reign of 27 years, he died c. 76 BCE at the age of fifty-one, during the siege of Ragaba.[24]
In Josephus's "Antiquities," he presents an account that differs from his earlier "War" and Syncellus's accounts. According to Josephus, Jannaeus fell fatally ill on the battlefield at Ragaba, with his wife Salome Alexandra present. Jannaeus instructed her to hide his death until she captured Ragaba and to subsequently share power with the Pharisees. He also requested that she allow the Pharisees to abuse his corpse, believing they would then give him an honorable burial, despite this request violating Deuteronomy 21:22-23. This request is interpreted as Jannaeus seeking atonement for previously violating this commandment by abusing the bodies of crucified Pharisees.[25] Kenneth Atkinson writes that Josephus's style and wording suggest Jannaeus died in Jerusalem and never reached Ragaba. Josephus may have concealed this fact to hide the undignified nature of this death.[25]
Alexander's reign ended with a significant political decision, naming his wife as successor and granting her the authority to appoint the next high priest.[25]
Salome Alexandra, also Shlomtzion, Shelamzion (Ancient Greek: Σαλώμη Ἀλεξάνδρα; Hebrew: שְׁלוֹמְצִיּוֹן, Šəlōmṣīyyōn, "peace of Zion"; 141–67 BC),[1] was a regnant queen of Judea, one of only three women in Jewish historical tradition to rule over the country, the other two being Deborah and Athaliah. The wife of Aristobulus I, and afterward of Alexander Jannaeus,[2] she was also the last ruler of Judea to die as the sovereign of an independent kingdom. Her nine-year reign has been described as a "golden age" of Hasmonean history.[3]
Name
Josephus does not use the Hebrew name of Shlomzion (Salome), referring only to her Greek name, "Alexandra" (Ἀλεξάνδρα). This is the only known Greek name among Hasmonean women. Salome's granddaughters also bore this name. Rabbinic literature, however, never uses the name Alexandra for her, instead referring to her with various Semitic names. The Dead Sea Scrolls have identified Alexandra as "Shlomzion" (שלמציון) in several texts, including 4Q331 and 4Q332.[4]
Family
Salome Alexandra's personal genealogy is not given by Josephus, nor does it appear in any of the Books of the Maccabees. Rabbinical sources designate the rabbi Simeon ben Shetach as her brother,[5] making her the daughter of Shetah as well. Salome Alexandra's oldest son by Alexander Jannaeus was Hyrcanus II who fought his younger brother Aristobulus II in 73 BC over the Jewish High Priesthood.[6] After enlisting the help of Nabataean king Aretas III, bribing Roman officials (including Scaurus), and gaining the favour of Pompey, Hyrcanus II was eventually successful in gaining that position.[7]
Consort
According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, Salome Alexandra was instrumental in arranging the assassination of her brother-in-law, Antigonus, by convincing her husband (Aristobulus I) that the former was plotting against him.[8] Upon the death of Aristobulus I in 103 BC, she freed his half-brother, Alexander Jannaeus, who had been held in prison.
During the reign of Alexander, who (according to the historian Josephus) apparently married her shortly after his accession,[9] Alexandra seemed to have wielded only slight political influence, as evidenced by the hostile attitude of the king to the Pharisees.
Josephus does not explicitly state Alexandra held any political authority before her reign. However, a passage about the Herodian dynasty in Antiquities of the Jews, where Josephus describes Antipas, the grandfather of Herod the Great, gaining political power when "King Alexander and his wife (= Alexandra) made him general of all Idumaea", suggests that Alexandra had some sort of power in Judea even before she inherited the kingdom.[3]
Political ability
The frequent visits to the palace of the chief of the Pharisaic party, Simeon ben Shetach, who was said to be the queen's brother, must have occurred in the early years of Alexander's reign, before Alexander had openly broken with the Pharisees. Alexandra does not seem to have been able to prevent the persecution of that sect by her husband.[citation needed]
According to archaeologist Kenneth Atkinson, "There are also some passages in the Talmud that say, during her husband's reign, that she protected Pharisees and hid Pharisees from his wrath."[10] Nevertheless, the married life of the royal pair seems to have ended cordially; on his deathbed Alexander entrusted the government, not to his sons, but to his wife, with the advice to make peace with the Pharisees.[11]
Salome Alexandra's next concern was to open negotiations with the leaders of the Pharisees, whose places of concealment she knew. Having been given assurances as to her future policy, they declared themselves ready to give Alexander's remains the honors due to a monarch. In so doing, she avoided any public affront to the dead king, which — owing to the embitterment of the people — would certainly have found expression at the interment.
Sole reign
 |
Salome Alexandra received the reins of government (76 or 75 BC) at Jannaeus' camp before Ragaba, and concealed the king's death until its fortress had fallen, in order that the siege might be maintained. She succeeded for a time in de-escalating the internal conflicts in the kingdom that existed at the time of Alexander's death, and she managed to secure assent to a Hasmonean monarchy from the Pharisees, who had suffered under Alexander.
Re-establishment of the Sanhedrin
The Pharisees were now not only tolerated, but were allowed to flourish. Salome Alexandra installed her eldest son, Hyrcanus II as High Priest. Hyrcanus II was wholly supportive of the Pharisees and the Sanhedrin was reorganized according to their wishes, becoming a supreme court for the administration of justice and religious matters, the guidance of which was placed in the hands of the Pharisees.
Internal and external policy
The Sadducees petitioned Salome Alexandra for protection against the ruling party. To avoid all party conflict, she removed the Sadducees from Jerusalem, assigning certain fortified towns for their residence.
Salome Alexandra expanded the army and provisioned fortresses so that neighbouring monarchs were deterred by the protected towns along the Judean frontier. She also sent her son Aristobulus II with an army to besiege Damascus, then beleaguered by Ptolemy Mennaeus. The expedition reportedly achieved little.
The last days of Salome Alexandra's reign were tumultuous. Her son, Aristobulus, endeavoured to seize the government, and succeeded her after her death.
Prosperity
Rabbinical sources refer in glowing terms to the prosperity which Judea enjoyed under Salome Alexandra. The Talmud (Ta'anit, 23a; Sifra, ḤuḲḲat, i. 110) relates that during her rule, as a reward for her piety, rain fell only on Sabbath (Friday) nights; so that the working class suffered no loss of pay through the rain falling during their work-time. The fertility of the soil was so great that the grains of wheat grew as large as kidney beans; oats as large as olives; and lentils as large as gold denarii. The sages collected specimens of these grains and preserved them to show future generations the rewards of obedience to the Law, and what piety could achieve.[12][failed verification]
Legacy
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"Shlomtzion" (Hebrew: שלומציון) is sometimes used as a female first name in contemporary Israel. Among others, the well-known Israeli writer Amos Kenan gave the name to his daughter.
During the British Mandate of Palestine, a major street in Jerusalem was called Princess Mary Street, after the only daughter of King George V and Queen Mary.[13] After the creation of Israel, the street was renamed "Queen Shlomzion Street," to commemorate the Jewish queen. Such street names exist also in Tel Aviv and Ramat Gan.
In the 1977 Knesset elections Ariel Sharon accepted the advice of Kenan to name his new political party "Shlomtzion" (it later merged with the Likud).
Israeli zoologists carefully observing the leopards of the Judean Desert bestowed the name "Shlomtzion" on a female leopard whose life, mating, and offspring were the subject of intensive, years-long study. In 1996, her body was found in Tze'elim Stream, having died of old age.[14][15]
In medieval sources
According to some versions of the Toledoth Yeshu, a medieval alternative-Christian life of Jesus, Salome is connected with Jesus of Nazareth, placing the death of Jesus 150 years earlier.[16]
John Hyrcanus II (/hərˈkeɪnəs/, Hebrew: יוחנן הרקנוס Yohanan Hurqanos; died 30 BCE), a member of the Hasmonean dynasty, was for a long time the High Priest of Israel in the 1st century BCE. He was also briefly king of Judea (67–66 BCE) and then the ethnarch of Judea, probably over the period 47–40 BCE.[1]
Accession
Hyrcanus was the elder of two sons born to Alexander Jannaeus, King and High Priest, and Salome Alexandra. After Alexander died in 76 BCE, his widow succeeded to the throne as queen of Judea. She installed Hyrcanus as High Priest in 73 BCE.[2] When Salome died in 67 BCE, she named Hyrcanus as her successor as ruler of Judea as well,[3] but soon he and his younger brother, Aristobulus II, began fighting over who had the right to the throne.
Alexander had numerous conflicts with the Pharisees.[4] However, Hyrcanus was supported by the Pharisees, especially later in his tenure.[5]
Deposition
Hyrcanus had scarcely reigned three months when Aristobulus II rose in rebellion. Hyrcanus advanced against Aristobulus at the head of his forces. When the brothers met in battle near Jericho, many of Hyrcanus' soldiers defected, joining forces with Aristobulus, thereby giving the latter the victory.[3][6] Hyrcanus took refuge in the citadel of Jerusalem; but Aristobulus' capture of the Temple compelled Hyrcanus to surrender. A peace was then concluded, according to the terms of which Hyrcanus was to renounce the throne and the office of High Priest, but was to enjoy the revenues of the latter office.[7]
This agreement did not last for long, as Antipater the Idumaean convinced Hyrcanus that Aristobulus was planning his death and to take refuge with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans. The Nabataeans advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of 50,000 men and besieged the city for several months during the rebellion.
Alliance with the Nabataeans
This agreement did not last. Hyrcanus feared that Aristobulus was planning his death. Such fears were furthered by Hyrcanus' adviser, Antipater. According to Josephus, Antipater sought to control Judea by putting the weak Hyrcanus back onto the throne.[3] Hyrcanus took refuge with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans, who had been bribed by Antipater into supporting Hyrcanus' cause through the promise of returning Arabian towns taken by the Hasmoneans.
The Nabataeans advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of 50,000, took the city and besieged the Temple where Aristobulus had taken refuge for several months. During the siege, Josephus states that the adherents of Hyrcanus stoned the pious Onias (Honi ha'Me'agel, also Khoni or Choni ha-Me'agel), who had refused to pray for the demise of their opponents, and further angered the priests who were fighting along with Aristobulus by selling them cattle for the paschal sacrifice for the enormous price of one thousand drachmae and then refused to deliver the promised animals for the sacrifice.(Antiquities of the Jews Book 14, 2:2)[8]
Roman intervention
During the Roman civil war, general Pompey defeated armies of the kingdoms of Pontus and the Seleucids. He sent his deputy Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to take possession of Seleucid Syria.
As the Hasmoneans were allies of the Romans, both brothers appealed to Scaurus, each endeavouring through gifts and promises to win him over to his side. Scaurus, moved by a gift of 400 talents, decided in favour of Aristobulus and ordered Aretas to withdraw his army. During his retreat, the Nabateans suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Aristobulus. Scaurus returned to Damascus.[9]
When Pompey arrived in Syria in 63 BCE, both brothers and a third party that desired the removal of the entire dynasty (according to some sources, these may have been the representatives of the Pharisees), sent their delegates to Pompey, who delayed making a decision. He favoured Hyrcanus over Aristobulus, deeming the elder, weaker brother a more reliable ally of the Roman Republic.
Aristobulus, suspicious of Pompey's intentions, entrenched himself in the fortress of Alexandrium, but when the Roman army approached Judea, he surrendered and undertook to deliver Jerusalem over to them. However, since many of his followers were unwilling to open the gates, the Romans besieged and captured the city by force, badly damaging the city and the temple. Aristobulus was taken to Rome a prisoner and Hyrcanus restored as high priest in Jerusalem.[10]
Restoration
By around 63 BCE, Hyrcanus had been restored to his position as High Priest but not to the Kingship. Political authority rested with the Romans whose interests were represented by Antipater, who primarily promoted the interests of his own house. In 47 BCE, Julius Caesar restored some political authority to Hyrcanus by appointing him ethnarch. This however had little practical effect, since Hyrcanus yielded to Antipater in everything.[9]
Exile
In 40 BCE, Aristobulus' son Antigonus II Mattathias allied himself with the Parthians and was proclaimed King and High Priest.[9] Hyrcanus was seized and his ears mutilated (according to Josephus, Antigonus bit his uncle's ears off) to make him permanently ineligible for the priesthood.
Then Hyrcanus was taken by the Parthians into captivity in Babylonia,[11] where he lived for four years amid the Babylonian Jews, who paid him every mark of respect.
Return to Jerusalem and death
In 36 BCE, Herod the Great, who had vanquished Antigonus with Roman help and feared that Hyrcanus might persuade the Parthians to help him regain the throne, invited the former High Priest to return to Jerusalem. Hyrcanus accepted and Herod received him with every mark of respect, assigning to him the first place at his table and the presidency of the state council.
However, in 30 BCE Herod charged Hyrcanus with plotting with the Nabateans and put him to death. Josephus states that Hyrcanus was 80 years old at the time of his death.
Biblical scholar Gregory Doudna proposed in 2013 that Hyrcanus II was the figure known as the Teacher of Righteousness in the Qumran Scrolls.[12][13] According to Doudna, Hyrcanus II’s sectarian orientation is now generally understood to have been Sadducee.
Aristobulus II (/ˌærɪstəˈbjuːləs/, Ancient Greek: Ἀριστόβουλος Aristóboulos) was High Priest of Israel and king of Judea from 66 BCE to 63 BCE, during the Hasmonean period in Jewish history.
Family
Aristobulus was the younger of two sons born to Alexander Jannaeus, King and High Priest, and Salome Alexandra. After Alexander died in 76 BCE, his widow succeeded to the throne as queen of Judea. She installed her elder son Hyrcanus II as High Priest in 73 BCE.[1] When Salome died in 67 BCE, Hyrcanus succeeded to the kingship as well.
Aristobulus shared his late father's views on religion and politics. He entertained designs upon the throne, even during the life of his mother. He courted the nobles and the military by constituting himself the patron of the Sadducees and bringing their cause before the queen. The fortresses which the queen had placed at the disposal of the Sadducees, ostensibly for their defense against the Pharisees, constituted in reality one of the preparatory moves of Aristobulus for his usurpation of the throne. The queen sought to direct his military zeal outside Judea and sent him against Ptolemy Mennaeus. After this undertaking had failed, Aristobulus resumed his political intrigues within Judea. He left Jerusalem secretly and betook himself to his friends, who controlled the largest number of fortifications, intending to make war against his mother. But the 73-year-old queen suddenly died in 67 BCE, so Aristobulus immediately directed his forces against his brother Hyrcanus, the legitimate heir to the throne.[2]
Rebellion
Hyrcanus advanced against Aristobulus at the head of his forces. When the brothers met in battle near Jericho, many of Hyrcanus' soldiers defected, joining forces with Aristobulus, thereby giving the latter the victory. Hyrcanus took refuge in the citadel of Jerusalem; but Aristobulus' capture of the Temple compelled Hyrcanus to surrender. A peace was then concluded, according to the terms of which Hyrcanus was to renounce the throne and the office of High Priest, but was to enjoy the revenues of the latter office.[3]
This agreement did not last for long, as Antipater the Idumaean convinced Hyrcanus that Aristobulus was planning his death and to take refuge with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans. The Nabataeans advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of 50,000 men and besieged the city for several months during the rebellion.
Roman intervention
During this civil war, the Roman general Pompey defeated the Kingdoms of Pontus and the Seleucids. He sent his deputy Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to take possession of Seleucid Syria.
As the Hasmoneans were allies of the Romans, both brothers appealed to Scaurus, each endeavoring by gifts and promises to win him over to his side. Scaurus, moved by a gift of 400 talents, decided in favor of Aristobulus and ordered Aretas to withdraw his army. During his retreat, the Nabateans suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Aristobulus.
When Pompey arrived in Syria in 63 BCE, both brothers and a third party that desired the removal of the entire dynasty, sent their delegates to Pompey, who however delayed the decision. He favoured Hyrcanus II over Aristobulus II, deeming the elder, weaker brother a more reliable ally of the Roman Empire.
Pompey defeated the Jewish armies in multiple battles, and took the fortresses of Judea. Aristobulus and his sons Alexander and Antigonus were captured in 63 BCE. Aristobulos, suspicious of Pompey, entrenched himself in the fortress of Alexandrium, but when the Romans defeated his army again, he surrendered and undertook to deliver Jerusalem over to them. However, since many of his followers were unwilling to open the gates, the Romans besieged and captured the city by force, badly damaging city and temple. Hyrcanus was restored as High Priest, but deprived of political authority.
Aristobulus II escaped in 57 BCE, instigating rebellion against Rome in Judea, until he was finally holed up by Aulus Gabinius, consul of the Roman province of Syria, in Machaerus. Mark Antony, commander of the cavalry under Gabinius, led several men to scale Aristobulus' fortifications and subdue his forces.[4]
Death
Taken prisoner, Aristobulus was released by Julius Caesar in 49 BCE in order to turn Judea against Pompey. He was on his way to Judaea with his son Alexander, when "he was taken off by poison given him by those of Pompey's party".[5] His son Alexander was beheaded by the Roman commander Scipio at Antioch.[6]
Aftermath
His son Antigonus led a rebellion against Rome, with help from the Parthians, and became king and high priest in 40 BCE, but was defeated and killed by the Romans in 37 BCE.
John Hyrcanus II (/hərˈkeɪnəs/, Hebrew: יוחנן הרקנוס Yohanan Hurqanos; died 30 BCE), a member of the Hasmonean dynasty, was for a long time the High Priest of Israel in the 1st century BCE. He was also briefly king of Judea (67–66 BCE) and then the ethnarch of Judea, probably over the period 47–40 BCE.[1]
Accession
Hyrcanus was the elder of two sons born to Alexander Jannaeus, King and High Priest, and Salome Alexandra. After Alexander died in 76 BCE, his widow succeeded to the throne as queen of Judea. She installed Hyrcanus as High Priest in 73 BCE.[2] When Salome died in 67 BCE, she named Hyrcanus as her successor as ruler of Judea as well,[3] but soon he and his younger brother, Aristobulus II, began fighting over who had the right to the throne.
Alexander had numerous conflicts with the Pharisees.[4] However, Hyrcanus was supported by the Pharisees, especially later in his tenure.[5]
Deposition
Hyrcanus had scarcely reigned three months when Aristobulus II rose in rebellion. Hyrcanus advanced against Aristobulus at the head of his forces. When the brothers met in battle near Jericho, many of Hyrcanus' soldiers defected, joining forces with Aristobulus, thereby giving the latter the victory.[3][6] Hyrcanus took refuge in the citadel of Jerusalem; but Aristobulus' capture of the Temple compelled Hyrcanus to surrender. A peace was then concluded, according to the terms of which Hyrcanus was to renounce the throne and the office of High Priest, but was to enjoy the revenues of the latter office.[7]
This agreement did not last for long, as Antipater the Idumaean convinced Hyrcanus that Aristobulus was planning his death and to take refuge with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans. The Nabataeans advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of 50,000 men and besieged the city for several months during the rebellion.
Alliance with the Nabataeans
This agreement did not last. Hyrcanus feared that Aristobulus was planning his death. Such fears were furthered by Hyrcanus' adviser, Antipater. According to Josephus, Antipater sought to control Judea by putting the weak Hyrcanus back onto the throne.[3] Hyrcanus took refuge with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans, who had been bribed by Antipater into supporting Hyrcanus' cause through the promise of returning Arabian towns taken by the Hasmoneans.
The Nabataeans advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of 50,000, took the city and besieged the Temple where Aristobulus had taken refuge for several months. During the siege, Josephus states that the adherents of Hyrcanus stoned the pious Onias (Honi ha'Me'agel, also Khoni or Choni ha-Me'agel), who had refused to pray for the demise of their opponents, and further angered the priests who were fighting along with Aristobulus by selling them cattle for the paschal sacrifice for the enormous price of one thousand drachmae and then refused to deliver the promised animals for the sacrifice.(Antiquities of the Jews Book 14, 2:2)[8]
Roman intervention
During the Roman civil war, general Pompey defeated armies of the kingdoms of Pontus and the Seleucids. He sent his deputy Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to take possession of Seleucid Syria.
As the Hasmoneans were allies of the Romans, both brothers appealed to Scaurus, each endeavouring through gifts and promises to win him over to his side. Scaurus, moved by a gift of 400 talents, decided in favour of Aristobulus and ordered Aretas to withdraw his army. During his retreat, the Nabateans suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Aristobulus. Scaurus returned to Damascus.[9]
When Pompey arrived in Syria in 63 BCE, both brothers and a third party that desired the removal of the entire dynasty (according to some sources, these may have been the representatives of the Pharisees), sent their delegates to Pompey, who delayed making a decision. He favoured Hyrcanus over Aristobulus, deeming the elder, weaker brother a more reliable ally of the Roman Republic.
Aristobulus, suspicious of Pompey's intentions, entrenched himself in the fortress of Alexandrium, but when the Roman army approached Judea, he surrendered and undertook to deliver Jerusalem over to them. However, since many of his followers were unwilling to open the gates, the Romans besieged and captured the city by force, badly damaging the city and the temple. Aristobulus was taken to Rome a prisoner and Hyrcanus restored as high priest in Jerusalem.[10]
Restoration
By around 63 BCE, Hyrcanus had been restored to his position as High Priest but not to the Kingship. Political authority rested with the Romans whose interests were represented by Antipater, who primarily promoted the interests of his own house. In 47 BCE, Julius Caesar restored some political authority to Hyrcanus by appointing him ethnarch. This however had little practical effect, since Hyrcanus yielded to Antipater in everything.[9]
Exile
In 40 BCE, Aristobulus' son Antigonus II Mattathias allied himself with the Parthians and was proclaimed King and High Priest.[9] Hyrcanus was seized and his ears mutilated (according to Josephus, Antigonus bit his uncle's ears off) to make him permanently ineligible for the priesthood.
Then Hyrcanus was taken by the Parthians into captivity in Babylonia,[11] where he lived for four years amid the Babylonian Jews, who paid him every mark of respect.
Return to Jerusalem and death
In 36 BCE, Herod the Great, who had vanquished Antigonus with Roman help and feared that Hyrcanus might persuade the Parthians to help him regain the throne, invited the former High Priest to return to Jerusalem. Hyrcanus accepted and Herod received him with every mark of respect, assigning to him the first place at his table and the presidency of the state council.
However, in 30 BCE Herod charged Hyrcanus with plotting with the Nabateans and put him to death. Josephus states that Hyrcanus was 80 years old at the time of his death.
Biblical scholar Gregory Doudna proposed in 2013 that Hyrcanus II was the figure known as the Teacher of Righteousness in the Qumran Scrolls.[12][13] According to Doudna, Hyrcanus II’s sectarian orientation is now generally understood to have been Sadducee.
Antigonus II Mattathias (Ancient Greek: Ἀντίγονος Antígonos; Hebrew: מַתִּתְיָהוּ, Mattīṯyāhū), also known as Antigonus the Hasmonean (died 37 BCE) was High Priest of Israel, and also the last Hasmonean king of Judea. He was the son of King Aristobulus II of Judea. In 37 BCE Herod handed him over to the Romans for execution, after Antigonus's three-year reign during which he led the Jews' fierce struggle for independence against the Romans.
Rome
Antigonus was the second son of Aristobulus II. He and his father were taken to Rome as prisoners by Pompey in 63 BCE. Antigonus escaped and returned to Judea in 57 BCE. After an unsuccessful attempt to oppose the Roman forces there, and despite his refusal to surrender his dynastic rights, the senate released him. After the death of his older brother Alexander, Antigonus claimed that his uncle Hyrcanus II was a puppet of Antipater the Idumaean and attempted to overthrow him with the help and consent of the Romans. He visited Julius Caesar in 47 BCE, complaining of the usurpation of Antipater and Hyrcanus II. In 42 BCE, he attempted to seize the government of Judea by force with the assistance of his brother-in-law, Ptolemy, but was defeated by Herod.[2]
Parthian support
The excessive taxation wrung from the people to pay for the extravagances of Mark Antony and Cleopatra had inspired a deep hatred against Rome. Antigonus gained the allegiance of both the aristocratic class in Jerusalem and the leaders of the Pharisees. The Parthians, who invaded Syria in 40 BCE, preferred to see an anti-Roman ruler on the throne of Judea. When Antigonus promised them large sums of gold as well as five hundred female slaves, the Parthians put five hundred warriors at his disposal. After Antigonus, with Parthian help, conquered Jerusalem, Hyrcanus was sent to Babylon after having his ears mutilated, which rendered him unfit for the office of High Priest of Israel. Herod fled from Jerusalem, and in 40 BCE Antigonus was officially proclaimed king and High Priest by the Parthians.[2]
Death
Following the conquest of Jerusalem by the Parthians, Herod fled quickly from Masada to Rome, where he was nominated in 40 BCE as Judea's allied king and friend of the Roman people (Latin: Rex socius et amicus populi Romani) by the Senate on the recommendation of the triumvir Mark Antony.[3] On Herod's return to Judaea from Rome in 39 BCE he opened a campaign against Antigonus and laid siege to Jerusalem. In the spring of 38 BCE, Herod wrested control of the province of Galilee and eventually all of Judaea, except for Jerusalem. Due to the approach of winter, Herod postponed his siege of Jerusalem—where Antigonus and the remnants of his army took refuge—until spring. Herod and a supporting Roman army were kept out of Jerusalem for 3–5 months but the Romans eventually captured the city. The supporters of Antigonus fought until the Romans reached the inner courtyard of the Temple.[4] Antigonus was taken to Antioch and executed,[5] ending Hasmonean rule.[2]
Josephus states that Mark Antony beheaded Antigonus (Antiquities, XV 1:2 (8–9). Roman historian Cassius Dio says that he was crucified and records in his Roman History: "These people [the Jews] Antony entrusted to a certain Herod to govern; but Antigonus he bound to a cross and scourged, a punishment no other king had suffered at the hands of the Romans, and so slew him."[6] In his Life of Antony, Plutarch claims that Antony had Antigonus beheaded, "the first example of that punishment being inflicted on a king."[7]
Disputed tomb in Jerusalem
In 1971, bulldozers removing earth in East Jerusalem for a construction project uncovered a tomb with an inscription that suggested that this was the tomb of King Antigonus, the last Hasmonean king.[8] However, according to anthropologist Joe Zias, former Curator of Archaeology and Anthropology for the Israel Antiquities Authority, this theory is just little more than an urban myth, since the only beheaded skeleton found in 1971 and at the later re-examination of the previously untouched tomb, belonged to an elderly woman. In his view, no other set of remains found there could be associated with King Antigonus II and it is only due to the efforts of the owner of the building located on top of the tomb that the myth is still being promoted.[9][10]
Qumran Scrolls connection
Biblical scholar Gregory Doudna proposed in 2013 that Antigonus II Mattathias was the figure known as the Wicked Priest in the Qumran Scrolls.[11][12] According to Doudna, Antigonus was the figure underlying the 'Wicked Priest' of the Habakkuk Commentary and the doomed ruler of the Nahum Commentary, documents found at Qumran.
Aristobulus III (53–36 BCE) was the last scion of the Hasmonean royal house, brother of Herod the Great's wife Mariamne, and grandson of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. He was a favourite of the people on account of his noble descent and handsome presence, and thus became an object of fear to Herod, who at first sought to ignore him entirely by debarring him from the high priesthood. But his mother Alexandra, through intercession with Cleopatra and Mark Antony, compelled Herod to remove Ananelus from the office of high priest and appoint Aristobulus instead.[1]
To secure himself against danger from Aristobulus, Herod instituted a system of espionage against him and his mother. This surveillance proved so onerous that they sought to gain their freedom by taking refuge with Cleopatra. As told by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, their plans were betrayed, and the disclosure had the effect of greatly increasing Herod's suspicions against his brother-in-law. As Herod dared not resort to open violence, he caused him to be drowned while he was bathing in a pool in Jericho during a banquet organized by Alexandra.
City of Antioch on the Orontes
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND EARLY HISTORY Antioch was situated in a strategic plain where several key trade routes from the Mediterranean and Anatolia converged. Routes through the Orontes River gorge and the Belen Pass met roads coming from Commagene, the Euphrates crossings, and the Syrian steppe, creating a single major route that proceeded south.
Before the city's formal establishment, the area was home to a settlement called Meroe, which featured a shrine to the goddess Anat. On a spur of Mount Silpius, a village named Io, or Iopolis, existed, which later inhabitants used to claim connections to the Attic Ionians. Another archaic village, Bottia, was mentioned by the chronicler John Malalas as existing in the plain by the river.
HELLENISTIC FOUNDATION AND EXPANSION According to the 4th-century orator Libanius, Alexander the Great camped at the site and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus. Following Alexander's death, his general Seleucus I Nicator gained control of Syria after the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC. In May of 300 BC, Seleucus founded Antioch, one of four "sister cities" in the region, naming it in honor of his father, Antiochus. Legend holds that the site was chosen when an eagle, a bird of Zeus, carried a piece of sacrificial meat to the location.
The original city was laid out by the architect Xenarius with a grid plan emulating Alexandria. It was positioned on the low ground north of Mount Silpius, with its citadel on the mountain itself and two great colonnaded streets intersecting at its center. Subsequent rulers expanded the city: Antiochus I Soter added a second walled area, Seleucus II Callinicus built a third on an island in the Orontes, and Antiochus IV Epiphanes added a fourth quarter, after which Antioch became known as a Tetrapolis (four cities). The entire area, measuring about six kilometers from west to east, included numerous large gardens. The population was a mix of local settlers, Athenians from nearby Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews, who were granted full status from the city's inception.
About six kilometers west lay the lush park of Daphne, famous for its woods, waters, and a grand temple to the Pythian Apollo, which was founded by Seleucus I. Antioch became the capital of the western Seleucid Empire after 240 BC and was known as a populous city of erudite men and liberal studies, though few names from this period have survived. The city's external appearance was impressive, earning it the epithet "Golden," but it frequently required restoration due to earthquakes, the first major recorded one occurring in 148 BC. The populace was often involved in the turbulent politics of the Seleucid dynasty, rising in rebellion on several occasions and eventually petitioning Rome to annex Syria in 64 BC, at which point Antioch became a free city (civitas libera) within the Roman Republic.
THE ROMAN ERA: AN EASTERN CAPITAL Roman emperors viewed Antioch as a potential eastern capital, superior to Alexandria due to its location, and lavished it with attention. Julius Caesar confirmed its freedom in 47 BC, a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was built, and a Roman forum was laid out. Tiberius added long colonnades, while Agrippa and Trajan expanded the theater. Antoninus Pius paved the main east-west artery with granite, and numerous baths and aqueducts were constructed, including a fine one by Hadrian. King Herod contributed a long portico (stoa), and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa encouraged a new suburb. By the time of Strabo, Antioch's population was comparable to Alexandria's, with estimates ranging from 200,000 to over 500,000 inhabitants at its peak. A massive hippodrome, capable of holding 80,000 spectators, and a grand imperial palace were among its most famous structures.
The city was a center of international exchange. Around 13 AD, Zarmanochegas, an Indian monk, met Nicholas of Damascus there while on a mission to Emperor Augustus. In 19 AD, the Roman general Germanicus died in Antioch and was cremated in the forum. The city endured earthquakes in 37 AD and again during the next reign. In 71 AD, Emperor Titus visited and rejected demands from the populace to expel the Jewish community or revoke their rights, which were inscribed on bronze tablets. A massive earthquake in 115 AD occurred while Emperor Trajan was visiting, forcing him to take shelter in the circus for days; he and his successors rebuilt the city, though its population was reduced. Later, in 256 AD, the city was raided and burned by the Persian king Shapur I, who killed or deported a vast number of its inhabitants before the Romans recaptured it the following year.
THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY Antioch was a pivotal center for early Christianity, and it was here that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians." The city's large Jewish population, living in a quarter called the Kerateion, attracted the earliest missionaries. According to tradition, Saint Peter was among them, establishing a patriarchal see that five modern churches still claim as their heritage. The city became the seat of one of the five original patriarchates of the Church, alongside Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Alexandria. Between 252 and 300 AD, ten church councils were held in Antioch. Emperor Constantine began construction of the city's Great Church, the Domus Aurea, in 327 AD. The writer John Chrysostom noted that during the time of Bishop Ignatius, the free adult population was 200,000, and in his own time (late 4th century), there were 100,000 Christians in the city.
IMPERIAL DECLINE AND THE BYZANTINE PERIOD Emperor Julian's visit in 362 AD was fraught with tension. He arrived during a public lament for Adonis, an ominous start to his stay. His attempt to revive the oracle of Apollo at Daphne by ordering the removal of the bones of the martyr Saint Babylas resulted in a massive Christian procession. When the temple later burned down, Julian suspected Christian arson and briefly closed the city's Great Church. He criticized the city's councilmen for their unwillingness to manage a food shortage and was dismayed by the decay of pagan worship. The Antiochenes, in turn, resented Julian for the burden of his billeted troops and mocked his severe methods and pointed beard. His successor, Valens, endowed the city with a new forum and reopened the Great Church.
In 387, a tax revolt led to the city losing its metropolitan status. Under Theodosius, Antioch was placed under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. In 490 or 491, violent anti-Jewish riots broke out, resulting in massacres and the destruction of synagogues. The city's decline accelerated with catastrophic earthquakes in 526 and 528. Emperor Justinian I restored many buildings and renamed the city Theopolis ("City of God"), but its former glory was lost. In 540, the Persian king Khosrow I sacked the city again, deporting its population. Another earthquake in 588 destroyed the Great Church. In 613, during the Byzantine-Sasanian War, the city fell to the Persians. Throughout this era, Antioch was home to a distinct school of Christian thought emphasizing literal scriptural interpretation, led by figures like Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia.
ARAB AND BYZANTINE CONTESTATION In 637, Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate at the Battle of the Iron Bridge. Under the Umayyad Caliphate, it served as a key administrative and military center on the frontier with the Byzantine Empire, a position that led to a gradual decline over the next 350 years. The city thrived again as a commercial hub under the Abbasid dynasty, which facilitated trade with Byzantium. In 969, the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas recaptured Antioch. It became the seat of a military governor (doux) and the supreme commander of the imperial forces on the eastern frontier. The city was held by Philaretos Brachamios until 1084, when it was captured by the Seljuk Turks.
THE CRUSADER PRINCIPALITY OF ANTIOCH The armies of the First Crusade besieged and conquered Antioch in 1098. Under its new Latin rulers, the city experienced a revival as a trade hub. Tancred, as regent for Bohemond I, expanded the principality's territory but refused to honor the Treaty of Devol, which would have made Antioch a vassal of the Byzantine Empire. A series of rulers and regents followed, including Roger of Salerno, Baldwin II of Jerusalem, Bohemond II, and Raymond of Poitiers. The principality was often in conflict with both its Muslim neighbors and the Byzantine emperors, who repeatedly tried to reassert their authority. During the Second Crusade, Louis VII of France visited but declined to help defend the city.
Rule passed to Constance and her husband Raynald of Châtillon, whose attack on Byzantine Cyprus provoked Emperor Manuel I Comnenus to march on Antioch and establish himself as its suzerain in 1158. After Raynald's capture by Muslims, Constance's son Bohemond III became ruler. The city remained neutral during the Third Crusade. Following Bohemond III's death, a 15-year power struggle ensued between his son Bohemond IV and his grandson Raymond-Roupen, who was supported by the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Eventually, the principality declined and became a vassal of Armenia. Bohemond VI allied with the Mongols against the Muslims, but this alliance could not save the city. In 1268, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured Antioch, breaking his promise to spare the inhabitants. He razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population and effectively ending the Latin presence in northern Syria.
MAMLUK AND OTTOMAN RULE After the Mamluk conquest, Antioch was left in ruins. By 1432, only about 300 houses remained inhabited, mostly by Turcomans. In 1516, the city was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire as part of the province of Aleppo. In the 19th century, it was the military headquarters for Ibrahim Pasha during the Egyptian occupation of Syria.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL LEGACY Today, few traces of the great ancient city remain visible, aside from massive fortification walls, aqueducts, and the Church of St. Peter, a cave church believed to have been a meeting place for the earliest Christians. Most of the Roman city lies buried under sediment from the Orontes River. Archaeological excavations conducted between 1932 and 1939 by a consortium of museums and universities failed to find the city's major public buildings but unearthed a vast collection of high-quality Roman mosaics from private villas and baths. These mosaics, depicting mythological scenes, animals, and daily life, are now housed primarily in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya and at sponsoring institutions like Princeton University. The city's civic symbol was the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch, a majestic statue of a crowned goddess with the river god Orontes at her feet. More recently, in 2016, a 3rd-century BC mosaic of a skeleton with a wine pitcher was discovered, bearing the inscription, "Be cheerful, enjoy your life."
Concise Summary Antioch on the Orontes rose from a Hellenistic foundation to become a vast, influential metropolis of the Roman Empire and a cradle of early Christianity, but it ultimately fell into decline after centuries of devastating earthquakes and successive conquests by Persian, Arab, Crusader, and Mamluk forces, leaving behind a rich archaeological legacy buried beneath the modern city.
Leaders of the Maccabean Revolt and the subsequent Hasmonean dynasty.
| Identity & Timeline | Life & Milieu | Works & Ideas | Impact & Reception | Sources & Guides |
| Mattathias ben Johanan (d. 167/166 BCE) <br> Priest from Modi'in (near Jerusalem). <br> Roles: Patriarch, priest, initiator of the Maccabean Revolt. <br> Lineage: Of the priestly family of Joarib. Father of five sons who led the revolt: Judas, Jonathan, Simon, John, and Eleazar. <br> Influenced by: The Torah's prohibitions against idolatry and Hellenistic assimilation. <br> Influenced: His sons, who became the Hasmonean dynasty; subsequent Jewish resistance movements. <br> Key Milestones: 167 BCE – Publicly refused to perform a pagan sacrifice commanded by a Seleucid official in Modi'in, killed a compliant Jew and the official, then fled to the Judean hills with his sons, igniting the rebellion. | A rural priest whose catalytic act of zeal transformed simmering cultural and religious tension into a full-scale war for liberation. His career had two phases: a quiet priestly life followed by a brief, intense period as the patriarch of a guerilla rebellion. <br> Critical Juncture: 167 BCE – The Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes issued decrees outlawing Jewish practices (circumcision, Sabbath observance, dietary laws) and desecrated the Second Temple by erecting an altar to Zeus. This policy of forced Hellenization provided the direct impetus for Mattathias’s violent defiance. <br> Core Passages: 1 Maccabees 2:1-28 (his famous call to arms); Daniel 11:32 (seen as a prophecy of his movement). <br> Thematic Motifs: His actions are framed around religious zeal (emulating Phinehas from Numbers 25), covenant fidelity, and active resistance against the defilement of the Temple and the Law. | Mattathias produced no written works; his legacy is his foundational actions and ideology. <br> Magnum Opus: The initiation of the Maccabean Revolt itself. <br> Signature Concepts: <ul><li>Armed struggle is a religious imperative to defend the Torah against persecution.</li><li>Rejection of religious syncretism and forced cultural assimilation.</li><li>The necessity of separating from and even attacking collaborators (Hellenized Jews).</li></ul> His military method involved launching a guerilla campaign from the countryside. His deathbed testament (1 Maccabees 2:49–70) established a pragmatic leadership structure for the revolt, appointing his son Judas as the military commander and Simon as the political counselor. | Immediate Reception: His rebellion was polarizing; it attracted devout, anti-Hellenist Jews (including the group known as the Hasidim) but was viewed as treasonous by the Hellenized urban elite and the Seleucid authorities. He successfully channeled widespread discontent into an organized, religiously-motivated insurgency. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>Universally regarded as the father of the Hasmonean dynasty.</li><li>Established the crucial halakhic precedent of permitting defensive warfare on the Sabbath, preventing the Seleucids from exploiting Jewish religious observance.</li><li>Became an enduring symbol of righteous rebellion against religious persecution.</li></ul> His battle cry, "Let everyone who is zealous for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!" (1 Macc. 2:27), became the revolution's defining slogan. | Primary Sources: 1 Maccabees 1–2; Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 12. <br> Scholarly Debates: 1) The historicity of the speeches attributed to him, which are likely literary creations representing the author's theological perspective. 2) The revolt's primary motivation: religious freedom versus socio-economic grievances against Hellenized elites. <br> Key Quotation: "It is better for us to die in battle than to look upon the evils of our nation and our sanctuary." (1 Macc. 3:59, a sentiment originating with Mattathias). <br> Core Bibliography: Elias Bickerman, The God of the Maccabees; Jonathan A. Goldstein, I Maccabees (The Anchor Bible). <br> Digital Resource: Josephus's works available via Livius.org. |
| Judas Maccabeus (Yehudah ha-Makabi) (d. 160 BCE) <br> Third son of Mattathias. <br> Birthplace: Modi'in. <br> Main Hubs: Judean wilderness, Jerusalem. <br> Roles: Military commander of the Maccabean Revolt. <br> Etymology: His epithet "Maccabeus" is debated, possibly meaning "The Hammer," "The Hammerer," or an acronym for a biblical verse. <br> Influenced by: His father's religious zeal and strategic vision. <br> Key Milestones: c. 166 BCE – Took command after his father's death. Dec. 164 BCE – Recaptured Jerusalem, cleansed the Second Temple, and re-instituted Jewish worship. 161 BCE – Made a treaty with the Roman Republic. Mar. 160 BCE – Killed in action at the Battle of Elasa. | A brilliant and charismatic military leader who turned a small-scale rural insurgency into a disciplined army capable of defeating superior Seleucid forces. <br> Phases: 1) Rise (166–165 BCE): A series of stunning victories (Wadi Haramia, Beth Horon, Emmaus) using guerilla tactics. 2) Peak (164 BCE): The liberation and purification of the Jerusalem Temple, the revolt's symbolic climax. 3) Consolidation & Decline (163–160 BCE): Fought to expand Judean autonomy while facing renewed Seleucid campaigns and growing internal political divisions between his faction and Hellenistic priestly families. <br> Political Backdrop: Judas skillfully exploited the internal succession crises within the Seleucid Empire to advance his cause. His outreach to Rome signaled a major geopolitical shift. | Judas was a man of action, not letters. His "works" were his campaigns and political achievements. <br> Magnum Opus: The Rededication of the Temple in 164 BCE. This act restored the religious heart of Judaism and became the basis for the festival of Hanukkah. <br> Signature Strategies: <ul><li>Guerilla Warfare: Masterfully used his knowledge of the Judean terrain for ambushes, night raids, and surprise attacks against cumbersome Hellenistic phalanxes.</li><li>Religious Motivation: Framed the conflict as a holy war, inspiring his troops through prayer and appeals to God's direct intervention.</li><li>Strategic Diplomacy: Initiated the first treaty between the Jews and the Roman Republic (1 Macc. 8), seeking a powerful ally against the Seleucids.</li></ul> | Immediate Reception: Hailed as a national savior by his followers. Feared and respected by Seleucid generals. His alliance with Rome was a groundbreaking diplomatic move, though it ultimately entangled Judea in Roman imperial politics. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>The establishment of the festival of Hanukkah, celebrating the Temple's rededication.</li><li>An archetypal figure of Jewish heroism and the fight for religious freedom.</li><li>His military victories created the political and territorial basis for the independent Hasmonean state his brothers would later formally establish.</li></ul> The Hasmonean dynasty would eventually be consumed by the very Roman power he first engaged. | Primary Sources: 1 Maccabees 3–9; 2 Maccabees 8–15; Josephus, Antiquities, Book 12. <br> Interdisciplinary Angles: His campaigns are studied in military history for their classic use of asymmetric warfare. Coin hoards from the period help date battles and track the shifting zones of control. <br> Scholarly Debates: The reliability of the supernatural miracles described in 2 Maccabees. The strategic wisdom of the Roman alliance. <br> Core Bibliography: Bezalel Bar-Kochva, Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids; Sylvie Honigman, Tales of High Priests and Taxes. |
| Jonathan Apphus (Yōnātān Hapfūs) (d. 143 BCE) <br> Youngest son of Mattathias. <br> Birthplace: Modi'in. <br> Main Hubs: Michmash, Jerusalem. <br> Roles: Rebel leader, military commander, diplomat, High Priest of Israel (from 152 BCE). <br> Epithet: "Apphus" likely means "the Diplomat" or "the Cunning." <br> Key Milestones: 160 BCE – Succeeded his brother Judas as commander. 152 BCE – Appointed High Priest by Seleucid pretender Alexander Balas. 143 BCE – Captured and executed by the Seleucid general Diodotus Tryphon. | A shrewd politician and diplomat who transformed the Maccabean movement from a purely military rebellion into a recognized political entity. Where Judas was the "hammer," Jonathan was the master negotiator. <br> Phases: 1) Guerilla Leader (160–153 BCE): Continued the fight from the wilderness, consolidating power and forcing the Seleucids to negotiate. 2) High Priest & Strategist (152–143 BCE): Skillfully played rival Seleucid claimants against each other, extracting concessions, territory, and titles for himself and Judea. He fortified Jerusalem and other key cities, building the foundations of a state. <br> Critical Juncture: 152 BCE – His acceptance of the High Priesthood from a Seleucid king was a pragmatic but highly controversial act. It fused secular, military authority with the highest religious office, violating traditional law (as he was not of the Zadokite line) and alienating pious groups like the Essenes. | Jonathan's "works" were diplomatic treaties and political constructions. He methodically built the Hasmonean state through negotiation backed by military force. <br> Signature Concepts: <ul><li>Political Pragmatism: Willingness to form alliances with foreign powers and accept appointments from them to strengthen Judea.</li><li>State-Building: Focused on fortifying cities, expanding territory through diplomacy, and securing tax exemptions.</li><li>Combining Offices: His assumption of the High Priesthood permanently altered the nature of that office, merging it with the role of secular ruler, a defining feature of the Hasmonean dynasty.</li></ul> He effectively used the ongoing Seleucid civil war as a political vacuum he could fill, gaining power by siding with whichever claimant offered the best terms. | Immediate Reception: His appointment as High Priest legitimized his rule in the eyes of the Seleucids but caused a major schism within Judaism. Pious groups saw his non-Zadokite lineage and political maneuvering as a corruption of the priesthood. The community that produced the Dead Sea Scrolls (likely Essenes) may have withdrawn into the desert in protest during this period. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>Successfully established Judea as a significant, semi-autonomous player in regional politics.</li><li>Created the Hasmonean precedent of the ruler also serving as High Priest.</li><li>His diplomatic successes and territorial gains paved the way for the full independence achieved by his brother Simon.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: 1 Maccabees 9–12; Josephus, Antiquities, Book 13. <br> Active Scholarly Debates: 1) The precise identity of the "Wicked Priest" mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls, with Jonathan being a leading candidate. 2) The degree to which his policies alienated the Pharisaic party's predecessors. <br> Quote: "And King Alexander wrote to Jonathan... 'I have appointed you today to be the high priest of your nation...'" (1 Macc. 10:19-20). <br> Core Bibliography: E. Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ; V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews. |
| Simon Thassi (Šīmʿōn Tassī) (d. 134 BCE) <br> Second son of Mattathias. <br> Birthplace: Modi'in. <br> Roles: General, High Priest, Ethnarch (National Leader) of Judea. <br> Key Milestones: 143 BCE – Succeeded Jonathan after his murder. 142/141 BCE – Achieved full political independence for Judea from the Seleucid Empire, securing the removal of their last garrison from Jerusalem. 140 BCE – A great assembly in Jerusalem formally acclaimed him as High Priest, general, and ethnarch in perpetuity. 134 BCE – Assassinated along with two of his sons by his son-in-law, Ptolemy son of Abubus. | The statesman who consolidated the military and diplomatic gains of his brothers into a sovereign, independent state. Simon completed the Maccabean project, transitioning from rebellion to recognized dynastic rule. <br> Phases: 1) Counselor & General: Served as a key advisor to Mattathias and a commander under Judas and Jonathan. 2) Founder of the State (142–134 BCE): Capitalized on Seleucid weakness to expel their last presence, capture the port of Joppa (giving Judea access to the sea), and establish peace and economic prosperity. His reign is remembered as a golden age. <br> Critical Juncture: 142 BCE – Seleucid King Demetrius II granted Judea tax exemption and recognized its independence, marking the formal birth of the Hasmonean state. The era was considered so significant that documents were dated from "the first year of Simon, the great high priest and commander and leader of the Jews." | Simon's work was the codification of Hasmonean rule. <br> Magnum Opus: The Decree of 140 BCE (recorded in 1 Macc. 14:27-49). This decree by a "great assembly" served as a constitutional basis for the Hasmonean dynasty. <br> Key Provisions: <ul><li>It confirmed Simon and his descendants in the offices of High Priest and Ethnarch "forever, until a trustworthy prophet should arise."</li><li>This clause cleverly legitimized Hasmonean rule while acknowledging it was provisional pending a future divine revelation (e.g., a Davidic messiah).</li><li>He also initiated the minting of Hasmonean coins, a powerful symbol of national sovereignty.</li></ul> His methodology was to secure formal, legal recognition for the de facto power his family had already won. | Reception: Wildly popular among the people for bringing peace, security, and independence. His reign was idealized in 1 Maccabees as a time of perfect justice and prosperity. He founded the Hasmonean dynasty on a stable, legal, and popular footing. <br> Tangible Monuments: He captured and refortified the Akra, the Seleucid citadel in Jerusalem. He also captured Gezer and Joppa, expanding Judean territory to the Mediterranean coast. Hasmonean-era coins bearing his name appeared. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>The official founder of the independent Hasmonean state and dynasty.</li><li>His reign established a period of peace that allowed for the consolidation of Jewish religious and national identity free from foreign domination.</li><li>The dual role of High Priest-Ethnarch he formalized defined Jewish leadership for nearly a century.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: 1 Maccabees 13–16; Josephus, Antiquities, Book 13. <br> Interdisciplinary Angles: Numismatics (the study of coins) is crucial for understanding Simon's claim to sovereignty. The first Jewish coins in centuries were minted under his authority, bearing inscriptions like "For the redemption of Zion." <br> Praise Quote: "He sought the good of his nation; his authority and his honor were pleasing to them all his days." (1 Macc. 14:4). <br> Core Bibliography: Kenneth Atkinson, A History of the Hasmonean State; Eyal Regev, The Hasmoneans: Ideology, Archaeology, Identity. |
| John Hyrcanus I (Yōḥānān Hurqanōs) (d. 104 BCE) <br> Son of Simon Thassi. <br> Main Hubs: Jerusalem. <br> Roles: High Priest and Ethnarch of Judea. <br> Lineage: Survived the plot that killed his father and brothers, securing the Hasmonean succession. <br> Key Milestones: 134 BCE – Succeeded his father Simon. c. 128 BCE – Judea re-subjugated by Antiochus VII Sidetes, but regained independence after Antiochus's death in 129 BCE. 110s-100s BCE – Embarked on major military campaigns, conquering Samaria (destroying the Samaritan temple on Mt. Gerizim) and Idumea, forcibly converting the Idumeans to Judaism. Broke with the Pharisees and aligned with the Sadducees. | A powerful and ambitious ruler who transformed the Hasmonean state from a small, independent nation into a regional imperial power. His long, 30-year reign was marked by military expansion, forced conversions, and deepening internal religious strife. <br> Phases: 1) Vassalage & Recovery (134–129 BCE): Began his reign under the thumb of the powerful Seleucid king Antiochus VII. 2) Imperial Expansion (129–104 BCE): After Antiochus VII’s death, Hyrcanus took advantage of renewed Seleucid weakness to launch a series of aggressive campaigns, dramatically expanding Judea's borders. 3) Internal Conflict: His pro-Hellenistic and autocratic tendencies, coupled with his alliance with the priestly aristocracy (Sadducees), led to a major rift with the Pharisees, a movement with broad popular support. | Hyrcanus was a military and political architect, not a writer. His "works" were conquered territories and shifts in state policy. <br> Signature Policies: <ul><li>Territorial Expansion: He created a "greater Judea" by conquering neighboring territories like Samaria, Idumea (Edom), and parts of Transjordan.</li><li>Forced Conversion: In a radical and controversial move, he compelled the conquered Idumeans to convert to Judaism, incorporating them into the Jewish nation.</li><li>Shift in Religious Alliance: He broke with the Pharisees, who criticized his holding of both the high priesthood and secular rule, and officially sided with the Sadducees.</li><li>Mercenary Army: He was the first Hasmonean ruler to hire foreign mercenaries, signaling a move away from the citizen-soldier model of the original revolt.</li></ul> | Reception: His military victories were popular and brought great wealth to the state. However, his break with the Pharisees created a deep and lasting internal division in Jewish society that would plague his successors. The destruction of the Samaritan temple permanently poisoned relations between Jews and Samaritans. The forced conversion of the Idumeans was a controversial act with long-term consequences (King Herod the Great would be of Idumean descent). <br> Offices Held: High Priest, Ethnarch. <br> Successor Lines: Solidified the Hasmonean dynasty, passing it to his sons. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>Transformed Judea into a major regional power.</li><li>Deepened the schism between the Pharisees and Sadducees, which became the defining political/religious conflict of the era.</li><li>His policy of forced conversion remains a debated topic in Jewish history.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 13; Josephus, The Jewish War, Book 1. (1 & 2 Maccabees do not cover his reign). <br> Archaeological Evidence: Fortifications and coins from his reign attest to his military and state-building activities. <br> Areas Lacking Consensus: The precise timeline and nature of his break with the Pharisees is primarily documented by Josephus, whose account may be biased. <br> Core Bibliography: Martin Goodman, A History of Judaism; Lester L. Grabbe, An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism. |
| Identity & Timeline | Life & Milieu | Works & Ideas | Impact & Reception | Sources & Guides |
| Aristobulus I (Yehudah) (d. 103 BCE) <br> Eldest son of John Hyrcanus I. <br> Birthplace: Jerusalem. <br> Roles: King (Basileus), High Priest. <br> Epithet: Called "Philhellene" (lover of Greek culture) by Josephus. <br> Influenced by: The expansionist policies of his father and the political norms of surrounding Hellenistic kingdoms. <br> Key Milestones: 104 BCE – Succeeded his father, imprisoned his mother and brothers to secure power. Became the first Hasmonean to formally adopt the title of "King." 104 BCE – Conquered and forcibly Judaized the region of Iturea (Galilee). 103 BCE – Executed his brother Antigonus and died of illness shortly after, having reigned for only one year. | The ruler who formalized the Hasmonean state's transformation into a Hellenistic monarchy, his brief and brutal reign symbolized the dynasty's complete departure from its anti-Hellenistic roots. <br> Phases: His single year of rule was a compressed cycle of consolidating power through familial imprisonment, military conquest, and court intrigue leading to fratricide, followed by his own death. <br> Critical Juncture: His assumption of the title "king" (basileus) was a momentous and controversial act. It violated the traditional Jewish view that only a descendant of the Davidic line could hold the title of king, deeply offending the Pharisees and other pious groups. This act prioritized personal ambition and Hellenistic political status over the religious sensibilities that had originally inspired the Maccabean revolt. The backdrop was the final collapse of Seleucid power, allowing local dynasts like Aristobulus to claim royal titles. | Aristobulus I is known for his political actions, not texts. <br> Signature Policies: <ul><li>Assumption of Kingship: Redefined Hasmonean leadership by adopting the diadem and royal title, signaling parity with other regional monarchs.</li><li>Dynastic Consolidation via Force: His imprisonment of his mother (letting her starve to death) and brothers was a ruthless tactic borrowed directly from the playbook of other Hellenistic dynasties.</li><li>Continuation of Forced Conversions: Like his father, he expanded the kingdom and compelled the conquered population (the Itureans) to adopt Judaism, a policy of aggressive Judaization.</li></ul> His methodology was that of a typical Hellenistic tyrant, using violence to secure power and military force to expand territory. | Immediate Reception: His royal pretensions and cruelty alienated the Pharisee party and their popular base, exacerbating the internal divisions in Judean society. Josephus portrays him as a tragic figure, consumed by guilt and paranoia after murdering his beloved brother Antigonus based on slander from the court. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>He irrevocably changed the nature of Hasmonean rule from a priest-ethnarchy to an explicit monarchy.</li><li>His reign set a precedent for the bloody internal power struggles that would plague the Hasmonean dynasty and ultimately contribute to its downfall.</li></ul> His actions demonstrated how far the dynasty had drifted from the ideals of Mattathias and Judas Maccabeus. | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 13; Josephus, The Jewish War, Book 1. <br> Interdisciplinary Angles: Numismatics is critical. While Josephus claims he was the first "king," no coins bearing his name with a royal title have been found, possibly due to his short reign. This has led to debate about whether his kingship was a formal reality or a later historical interpretation. <br> Scholarly Debates: The reliability of Josephus's highly dramatic and moralizing account of Aristobulus's paranoia and death. <br> Core Bibliography: E. Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ; Kenneth Atkinson, A History of the Hasmonean State. |
| Alexander Jannaeus (Yehonatan) (c. 126–76 BCE) <br> Son of John Hyrcanus I. <br> Roles: King and High Priest. <br> Main Hubs: Jerusalem; conducted constant military campaigns across Judea, the Mediterranean coast, and Transjordan. <br> Lineage: Released from prison by Salome Alexandra, the widow of his brother Aristobulus I, whom he then married according to Levirate law. <br> Key Milestones: 103 BCE – Ascended the throne. c. 90-84 BCE – Fought a bloody six-year civil war against the Pharisees and their supporters. c. 88 BCE – Crucified 800 Pharisee rebels. Died in 76 BCE while besieging a fortress. | A ruthless and energetic warrior-king whose 27-year reign saw the Hasmonean kingdom expand to its greatest territorial extent amidst brutal internal conflict. He was the epitome of the Sadducean priest-king, prioritizing military conquest and autocratic power over religious consensus. <br> Phases: 1) Constant Warfare (103 BCE onwards): His reign was one long military campaign to subdue coastal cities (like Gaza) and Transjordanian territories. 2) Civil War (c. 90-84 BCE): His disdain for the Pharisees culminated in a devastating internal war after he improperly performed a rite at the Feast of Tabernacles. His Pharisee opponents even sought aid from the Seleucid king against him. 3) Absolute Rule (84-76 BCE): After crushing the rebellion, he ruled as an undisputed, yet widely hated, tyrant. <br> Political Backdrop: The weakness of both the Seleucids and Ptolemies allowed Jannaeus to carve out a large kingdom without superpower interference. | Jannaeus was a conqueror, not a scholar. His legacy is etched in territory and political precedent. <br> Signature Policies: <ul><li>Militaristic Expansionism: He transformed Judea into an aggressive regional power, conquering nearly all of non-Hellenized Palestine.</li><li>Violent Suppression of Dissent: His most infamous act was the crucifixion of 800 Pharisee rebels in Jerusalem, an act of extreme cruelty meant to terrorize his opposition.</li><li>Sadducean Priesthood: As High Priest, he staunchly upheld Sadducean interpretations of the law, rejecting the oral traditions (the nascent Oral Torah) championed by the Pharisees, which further fueled popular resentment.</li><li>Hellenistic Coinage: He minted a vast number of coins, many bearing Hellenistic symbols (anchor, star) and bilingual inscriptions, reflecting his identity as a Hellenistic monarch.</li></ul> | Immediate Reception: He was reviled by the Pharisees and their followers, who constituted the majority of the population. The civil war demonstrates the profound hatred he inspired. However, his military successes were likely popular with the ruling Sadducean and military aristocracy. On his deathbed, he allegedly advised his wife to reconcile with the Pharisees, acknowledging that his policy of brutal confrontation had failed. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>Expanded Hasmonean Judea to its maximum territorial size, resembling the biblical kingdom of David and Solomon.</li><li>His reign cemented the Pharisees as the de facto religious leaders of the common people.</li><li>His cruelty is believed to be referenced in the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly the Nahum Pesher, which speaks of the "Lion of Wrath who hangs men alive."</li></ul> | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities, Book 13; The Jewish War, Book 1. The Dead Sea Scrolls (specifically, the Nahum Pesher, 4Q169). <br> Archaeological Evidence: The immense number of coins minted during his reign is a primary source for his ideology and the economy. Hasmonean-era fortifications throughout Israel also date to his reign. <br> Key Quote (Attributed by Josephus): He advised his wife Salome: "do not be afraid of the Pharisees, nor of those who are not Pharisees; but be afraid of... the things they will do to you..." <br> Core Bibliography: Eyal Regev, The Hasmoneans: Ideology, Archaeology, Identity. |
| Salome Alexandra (Shelomtzion) (c. 139–67 BCE) <br> Wife of Aristobulus I and then of Alexander Jannaeus. <br> Role: Queen Regnant of Judea (76–67 BCE). The only female Hasmonean monarch. <br> Key Milestones: 76 BCE – Succeeded her husband Jannaeus, appointing her elder son Hyrcanus II as High Priest. Reversed Jannaeus's policies, recalled Pharisee exiles, and appointed them to positions of power, making their teachings the state law. Maintained a period of peace and prosperity. 67 BCE – Died, sparking a civil war between her sons. | The only reigning Jewish queen in the Second Temple period, her rule was a peaceful and prosperous interlude between the tyrannical reign of her husband and the destructive civil war of her sons. A shrewd politician, she reversed her husband's brutal policies and brought stability to the kingdom by empowering the Pharisees. <br> Phases: 1) Queen Consort: As wife to two successive kings, she was an insider to the Hasmonean court for decades. 2) Queen Regnant (76-67 BCE): On her husband's advice, she forged a strategic alliance with the Pharisees, his erstwhile enemies. She separated the monarchy from the High Priesthood, appointing her passive son Hyrcanus II to the latter while she retained secular authority. This nine-year reign is remembered by rabbinic tradition as a golden age of peace and piety. | Salome's "work" was a complete political and religious realignment of the Hasmonean state. <br> Magnum Opus: The restoration of the Pharisees to power. <br> Signature Policies: <ul><li>Alliance with the Pharisees: She recalled Pharisee leaders from exile and made them the dominant force in the Sanhedrin (the national council). Pharisaic interpretations of religious law became state policy.</li><li>Separation of Powers: She kept the secular royal power for herself while delegating the religious authority of the High Priesthood to her son Hyrcanus II, resolving a key point of conflict.</li><li>Peaceful Foreign Policy: She avoided the endless expansionist wars of her husband, maintaining a large army for defense but pursuing a non-aggressive foreign policy, resulting in stability.</li></ul> Her method was one of reconciliation, political compromise, and shrewd power-sharing to heal the deep divisions in society. | Reception: She was highly popular and her reign was remembered with great affection in rabbinic literature (e.g., the Talmud), which praised the unprecedented peace and prosperity of her time, claiming rain fell so perfectly that the wheat grew to the size of kidneys. She successfully kept the peace between her two ambitious sons, the passive Hyrcanus II and the aggressive Aristobulus II, but their rivalry exploded the moment she died. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>Her reign proved to be the last period of stability and undisputed independence for the Hasmonean kingdom.</li><li>By making the Pharisees the dominant authority in Jewish law and governance, she ensured their teachings would form the basis of Rabbinic Judaism after the Temple's destruction.</li></ul> Her death marked the beginning of the end for Hasmonean sovereignty. | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities, Book 13; The Jewish War, Book 1. Rabbinic traditions found in the Babylonian Talmud (e.g., Ta'anit 23a). <br> Historiographical Shifts: While Josephus presents a straightforward political history, rabbinic sources offer a semi-legendary, idealized portrait of her reign, highlighting divine favor and agricultural bounty as signs of her righteousness. <br> Areas Lacking Consensus: The degree of her personal agency versus simply following the deathbed advice of her husband is debated by historians. <br> Core Bibliography: Tal Ilan, Jewish Women in Greco-Roman Palestine. |
| Hyrcanus II (d. 30 BCE) <br> Elder son of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra. <br> Roles: High Priest (76–66 BCE & 63–40 BCE), King (67–66 BCE), Ethnarch (47–40 BCE). <br> Main Hubs: Jerusalem, and later, exile in Babylonia. <br> Key Milestones: 76 BCE – Appointed High Priest by his mother. 67 BCE – Briefly became king upon his mother’s death. 66 BCE – Deposed by his younger brother Aristobulus II. 63 BCE – Restored as High Priest by the Roman general Pompey the Great. 40 BCE – Mutilated (ears cut off) and exiled by the Parthians. 30 BCE – Executed by Herod the Great. | A weak and passive figure who was a pawn in the power struggles between his more ambitious brother, the Nabatean Arabs, the Romans, and ultimately Herod the Great. His long career was defined by his repeated installation and deposition by foreign powers, and his inability to hold power on his own marked the final erosion of Jewish independence. <br> Phases: 1) High Priest under his Mother (76-67 BCE): A figurehead with religious but not secular power. 2) Civil War (67-63 BCE): Fought and lost a war for the throne against his brother Aristobulus II, but was persuaded by his advisor, the Idumean Antipater (Herod's father), to seek Roman intervention. 3) Roman Puppet (63-40 BCE): Ruled as High Priest and Ethnarch under Roman authority, with real power held by Antipater and his sons. 4) Exile and Death (40-30 BCE): Deposed and mutilated by a Parthian invasion, he was later lured back to Jerusalem by Herod and executed. | Hyrcanus II was a reactor, not an innovator. His actions were generally instigated by his advisors or compelled by foreign overlords. <br> Key Decisions (often made for him): <ul><li>Appeal to Rome: His most consequential decision, made under the influence of Antipater, was to ask Pompey to arbitrate the Hasmonean civil war. This directly invited Roman conquest and ended Jewish independence.</li><li>Alliance with Antipater: His reliance on Antipater the Idumean effectively transferred power away from the Hasmonean family to the Herodian family, paving the way for Herod the Great's rise.</li></ul> His defining characteristic was political passivity and a lack of the ruthless ambition that had defined his Hasmonean ancestors. He repeatedly chose abdication or reliance on others over direct conflict. | Reception: He was seen as ineffectual by his contemporaries. His brother Aristobulus II easily defeated him. Antipater and the Romans found him to be a useful, pliable tool for controlling Judea. The Parthians disqualified him from the High Priesthood by mutilating him, as the High Priest had to be without physical blemish. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>His decision to involve Rome in the Hasmonean civil war was the single most catastrophic political mistake of the dynasty, leading directly to the loss of Judean sovereignty.</li><li>He was the last functioning Hasmonean ruler to hold the High Priesthood for any significant length of time.</li><li>His weakness created the power vacuum that allowed for the rise of Herod the Great.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities, Books 14-15; The Jewish War, Book 1. Roman histories by authors like Cassius Dio. <br> Interdisciplinary Angles: The political history of the late Roman Republic is essential context. The Hasmonean civil war was a minor sideshow in the larger conflicts between Roman dynasts like Pompey, Caesar, and later Mark Antony. <br> Suggested Archives: The archaeological remains of the "Hasmonean Palace" in Jerusalem's Jewish Quarter were likely expanded and used during his long tenure. <br> Core Bibliography: Martin Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations. |
| Aristobulus II (d. 49 BCE) <br> Younger son of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra. <br> Roles: King and High Priest (66–63 BCE). <br> Main Hubs: Jerusalem; later a prisoner in Rome. <br> Key Milestones: 67 BCE – Rebelled against his elder brother Hyrcanus II upon their mother's death. 66 BCE – Defeated Hyrcanus and seized the throne and High Priesthood. 63 BCE – Resisted the Roman general Pompey, leading to Pompey's siege and conquest of Jerusalem. Deposed and taken to Rome as a prisoner. 49 BCE – Released by Julius Caesar to undermine Pompey's power in Syria, but was poisoned en route. | An ambitious and energetic prince who, like his father Jannaeus, represented the warrior-king faction of the Hasmonean dynasty. His aggressive defiance of Rome, in contrast to his brother's pliancy, directly precipitated the Roman conquest of Jerusalem and the end of Jewish independence. <br> Phases: 1) Prince-in-Waiting: An ambitious military leader chafing under his mother's pro-Pharisee rule and his brother's seniority. 2) King & High Priest (66-63 BCE): Successfully seized power in a swift civil war. 3) Defiance and Defeat (63 BCE): Unlike his brother, he attempted to resist Roman arbitration, vacillating between defiance and submission. His supporters ultimately fortified themselves in the Temple, which Pompey besieged and captured, famously entering the Holy of Holies. 4) Roman Captivity (63-49 BCE): He and his children were paraded in Pompey's triumph in Rome. | Aristobulus II was a man of military action and hubris. <br> Signature Actions: <ul><li>Usurpation of the Throne: He rejected the established succession and used military force to depose his brother, initiating the civil war that destroyed the kingdom.</li><li>Alliance with the Sadducees: He drew his support from the traditional Sadducean military and priestly aristocracy who favored a strong, independent, and aggressive monarchy.</li><li>Resistance to Pompey: His fatal miscalculation was believing he could defy a Roman general. His defiance gave Pompey the pretext to conquer Judea outright, rather than simply arbitrate its internal dispute.</li></ul> His methodology was based on military force and a profound underestimation of Roman power and resolve. He embodied the Hasmonean spirit of independence but lacked the political pragmatism to preserve it. | Reception: He was popular with the Sadducean establishment and nationalist elements who favored a strong, independent kingship. However, his actions were disastrous for the nation. Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem was a national trauma, and Aristobulus was held responsible. He remained a potent symbol of resistance even in captivity, with his son Alexander leading further revolts against Rome. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>His ambition directly triggered the Hasmonean civil war and the subsequent Roman conquest in 63 BCE, a pivotal turning point in Jewish history.</li><li>Pompey's entry into the Temple's Holy of Holies, a direct result of Aristobulus's defiance, was a profound religious desecration that signaled the end of an era.</li><li>He was the last Hasmonean to rule an independent Jewish kingdom, however briefly.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities, Book 14; The Jewish War, Book 1. <br> Active Scholarly Debates: The degree to which Pompey intended to conquer Judea all along, versus Aristobulus's actions providing an unexpected opportunity. The strategic decisions made during the siege of the Temple. <br> Praise/Critique Quotes (from Josephus): Josephus consistently portrays him as warlike and proud, a stark contrast to the weak-willed Hyrcanus II. He writes that Aristobulus was "a man of a hot temper, and very desirous of rule." <br> Core Bibliography: Adrian Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire (for context on Pompey). |
| Identity & Timeline | Life & Milieu | Works & Ideas | Impact & Reception | Sources & Guides |
| Antigonus II Mattathias (d. 37 BCE) <br> Son of Aristobulus II. <br> Roles: King and High Priest (40–37 BCE). <br> Main Hubs: Jerusalem, Galilee. <br> Key Milestones: 40 BCE – Invaded Judea with the support of the Parthian Empire, capturing Jerusalem and his uncle Hyrcanus II. 39–37 BCE – Fought a protracted war against Herod the Great, who had been appointed King of Judea by the Roman Senate. 37 BCE – Besieged and captured in Jerusalem by Herod and Roman legions. Executed in Antioch by order of Mark Antony. | The last Hasmonean king of Judea, Antigonus was a determined and resilient leader who fought tenaciously to reclaim his family's throne from the Roman-backed usurper, Herod. His brief reign was not a period of governance but a three-year war for national survival against the overwhelming power of Rome. <br> Phases: 1) Claimant-in-Exile: After his father's death, he made several failed attempts to seize power. 2) Parthian-backed King (40-37 BCE): He masterfully exploited the Parthian invasion of the Roman East to install himself as king in Jerusalem, briefly restoring an anti-Roman Hasmonean kingdom. 3) Final Stand: He was besieged in Jerusalem by Herod and the Roman general Gaius Sosius, fighting to the very end. Critical Juncture: His alliance with Parthia, Rome's arch-nemesis, was a bold stroke that won him the throne but also ensured that Rome would spare no expense to destroy him. | Antigonus was the final embodiment of Hasmonean resistance against foreign rule. <br> Signature Policies & Actions: <ul><li>Parthian Alliance: A direct challenge to Roman hegemony, this alliance represented a complete rejection of the pro-Roman diplomacy pursued by Hyrcanus II.</li><li>Reunification of Kingship and Priesthood: He restored the traditional Hasmonean model by serving as both King and High Priest.</li><li>Propagandistic Coinage: He was the first Jewish ruler to depict the seven-branched menorah on his coins, a powerful symbol of his legitimacy as High Priest and defender of the Temple. The coins bore his Hebrew name and title, "Mattathias the High Priest," and his Greek name and title, "King Antigonus," asserting his dual role.</li></ul> | Immediate Reception: He was popular among the Judean population and aristocracy, who preferred a legitimate Hasmonean ruler to the Idumean Herod. His execution was shocking and unprecedented; Roman historians note he was the first king the Romans ever had scourged and then beheaded, a punishment for a common criminal designed to utterly humiliate him and delegitimize his royal status. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>The last fighting Hasmonean king, his defeat marked the definitive end of a century of Jewish independence.</li><li>His execution cleared the final obstacle for the establishment of the Herodian dynasty, a client kingdom completely subservient to Rome.</li><li>His coins remain a potent symbol of the last stand for Jewish sovereignty in the Second Temple period.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 14; The Jewish War, Book 1. Roman histories by Plutarch (Life of Antony) and Cassius Dio (Roman History). <br> Archaeological Evidence: The coins minted by Antigonus are the most important primary sources for his reign, revealing his self-perception and his appeal to Jewish religious and national sentiments. <br> Core Bibliography: Kenneth Atkinson, A History of the Hasmonean State; Nikos Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty. |
| Aristobulus III (c. 53–36 BCE) <br> Grandson of both Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II. <br> Role: High Priest (36 BCE). <br> Lineage: The last prominent male heir of the Hasmonean dynasty. His sister was Mariamne, the beloved wife of Herod the Great. <br> Key Milestones: 36 BCE – At age 17, he was appointed High Priest by Herod the Great. The appointment was a political concession to his mother Alexandra and to Mark Antony. 36 BCE – During the Feast of Tabernacles, his handsome presence and Hasmonean lineage earned him an ecstatic reception from the people in Jerusalem. 36 BCE – Shortly after, he was drowned by Herod's agents in a swimming pool at a palace in Jericho. | A tragic teenage prince whose life was extinguished almost as soon as it began. He was a pawn in the deadly court politics of Herod the Great. As the last male Hasmonean of his generation, his immense popularity made him an intolerable threat to the insecure, non-Hasmonean King Herod. <br> Life & Milieu: His brief life was entirely shaped by his illustrious lineage. He was a living symbol of the deposed dynasty and a potential figurehead for any opposition to Herod's rule. Critical Juncture: His appearance in the High Priest's vestments at the Feast of Tabernacles. Josephus vividly describes how the crowd's adulation for the young Hasmonean prince instantly ignited Herod's paranoia, convincing him that Aristobulus had to be eliminated. His death was a direct result of his popular appeal. | As a youth who held office for only a few months before his murder, Aristobulus III had no recorded works or signature ideas. His entire historical significance is symbolic. <ul><li>He represented the last, fleeting hope for a restoration of the Hasmonean line.</li><li>His appointment was a political maneuver by Herod to appease the Hasmonean faction and his Roman patron, Mark Antony.</li><li>His murder was a definitive statement by Herod that he would eradicate any and all potential rivals to his throne, no matter how close their connection to his own family.</li></ul> He was a victim of the power struggle between his ambitious mother, Alexandra, and the ruthless Herod. | Immediate Reception: His murder was poorly disguised as an accident and caused widespread horror. His mother, Alexandra, leveraged the crime to appeal to Cleopatra VII of Egypt, who in turn pressured Mark Antony to hold Herod accountable. Herod was summoned to explain himself but managed to use bribes and diplomacy to escape punishment. The murder created a permanent and fatal rift in Herod's own household, as his wife Mariamne (the victim's sister) never forgave him, setting in motion a chain of events that would lead to her own execution years later. <br> Legacy: <ul><li>He was the last Hasmonean to hold the office of High Priest.</li><li>His murder is one of the most famous examples of Herod the Great's paranoia and cruelty.</li><li>His death extinguished the last direct male Hasmonean threat to Herod's power, helping to secure the Herodian dynasty.</li></ul> | Primary Sources: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 15, is the sole detailed source for his life and death. <br> Interdisciplinary Angles: His story is a classic case study in the court politics of a Roman client kingdom, showing the interplay between local dynastic rivalries (Herodian vs. Hasmonean) and the overarching power of Roman patrons (Mark Antony) and their allies (Cleopatra). <br> Key Quote (from Josephus): "The jealousy of Herod was aroused... for he saw that the people were one and all enthusiastically devoted to [Aristobulus]... and so he soon decided to do away with him." (Antiquities 15.55-56). <br> Core Bibliography: Samuel Rocca, Herod's Judaea: A Mediterranean State in the Cla |