Kings of Magadha 600 BC >>>>The Nanda Dynasty [Fear invoked Hyphasis Revolt of Alexandrian Force], The first Empire of India (345–321 BCE)>> Chandragupta 340 BC – 298 BC > Bindusara 320 BC – 272 BC) >Ashoka the Great 304–232 BCE

Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne to his son, Bindusara, who became the new Maurya Emperor. Bindusara maintained friendly relations with Greek governors in Asia and Egypt. Bindusara's son Ashoka the Great became one of the most influential kings in India's history due to his important role in the history of Buddhism.

The Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BCE) originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BC. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in the east, to Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.^[1] The rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth which they accumulated. The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders in the recorded history of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates). According to Plutarch however, the size of the Nanda army was even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 war elephants.^[6] However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to see their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for his forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. This river thus marks the eastern-most extent of Alexander's conquests.

encyclopedia

Kingdom of Magadha
←  c. 1200 BC–321 BC  →
Expansion of the Magadha state in the 6th-4th centuries BCE
Capital		Rajagriha, thenPataliputra (Modern day Patna)
Languages		Old Indic Languages(e.g. Magadhi Prakrit,Maithili, Other Prakrits,Sanskrit)
Religion		Hinduism Jainism Buddhism Brahmanism
Government		Absolute Monarchy as described in theArthashastra
Historical era		Antiquity
-	Established	c. 1200 BC
-	Disestablished	321 BC
Currency		Panas
Today part of		India  Bangladesh  Pakistan  Afghanistan    Nepal

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Magadha (Sanskrit: मगध) formed one of the sixteen Mahā-Janapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries") or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital wasRajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Rajagriha was initially known as 'Girivrijja' and later came to be known as so during the reign of Ajathashatru. Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,^[1] followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas.^[2] A state of Magadha, possibly a tribal kingdom, is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600BCE.

The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainismand Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Contents

  [hide] 

• 1 Geography
• 2 Recorded History
• 3 Magadha Dynasties
  • 3.1 Haryankasup dynasty
  • 3.2 Shishunaga dynasty
  • 3.3 Nanda dynasty
  • 3.4 Maurya dynasty
  • 3.5 Sunga dynasty
  • 3.6 Kanva dynasty
  • 3.7 Gupta dynasty
• 4 Kings of Magadha
  • 4.1 Haryanka dynasty (c. 600 – 413 BC)
  • 4.2 Shishunaga dynasty (413–345 BC)
  • 4.3 Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BCE)
  • 4.4 Maurya Dynasty (324–184 BC)
  • 4.5 Shunga Dynasty (185–73 BC)
  • 4.6 Kanva Dynasty (73–26 BC)
  • 4.7 Gupta Dynasty (c. AD 240–550)
• 5 See also
• 6 Notes
• 7 References
• 8 External links

Geography[edit]

The Magadha state c. 600 BC, before it expanded

The kingdom of the Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna, Jehanabad, Nalanda, Aurangabad, Nawadah and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the north by the river Ganges, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the Vindhya mountains and on the west by the river Sone. During the Buddha’s time and onward, its boundaries included Anga.^[3] This region of Greater Magadha had a culture and religious beliefs of its own that predated the sanatan dharma. Much of the second urbanisation took place here from c. 500 BCE onwards and it was here that Jainism became strong and Buddhism arose. The importance of Magadha's culture can be seen in that both Buddhism and Jainism adopted some of its features, most significantly a belief in rebirth and karmic retribution.^[4] Early Jaina and Brahmanical scriptures describe varieties of ascetic practices that are based on shared assumptions. These assumptions included the belief that liberation can be achieved through knowledge of the self. These practices and their underlying assumptions were present in the culture of Greater Magadha at an early date and are likely to have influenced Jainism and other religions.^[5] The belief in rebirth and karmic retribution was an important feature in later developments in Indian religion and philosophy.

Recorded History[edit]

There is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The most important sources are the Hindu Puranas, the Buddhist Pāli Canon and Chronicles of Sri Lanka, and Jain texts. Based on these sources, it appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600 BC – 413 BC.

The Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first ruler of Magadha. The second book of the Mahabharata, the Sabha Parva also includes the story of how Krishna kills king Jarasandha of Magadha, allegedly to stop him from making human sacrifices of 95 kings Jarasandha had captured.

Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born in Kapilavastu in the ancient Shakya clan (an area in modern-day Nepal^[6]) in the 6th or 5th century BC, a tribal territory which was later absorbed by Kosala.

As the scene of many incidents in his life, including his enlightenment, Magadha is often considered a blessed land. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West Bengal.

The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King Pasenadi (Prasenajit), king of neighbouring Kosala and brother-in-law of King Bimbisara, promptly retook the gift of the Kashi province, triggering a war between Kosala and Magadha. Ajatashatru was trapped by an ambush and captured with his army. However, King Prasenajit allowed him and his army to return to Magadha, restored the province of Kashi, and even gave his daughter in marriage to the new young king.

Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru's war with the Licchavi republic, an area north of the river Ganges. It appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister to the area who for three years worked to undermine the unity of the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganges River, Ajatashatru built a fort at the town ofPataliputra. Torn by disagreements the Licchavis fought with Ajatashatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatashatru to defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank. Pataliputra began to grow as a center of commerce and became the capital of Magadha after Ajatashatru's death.

The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last ruler of Shishunaga Dynasty, Kalasoka was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BC, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons).

In 326 BC, the army of Alexander approached the western boundaries of Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Ocean.

Around 321 BC, the Nanda Dynasty ended and Chandragupta became the first king of the great Mauryan Dynasty and Mauryan Empire with the help of Vishnugupta. The Empire later extended over most of Southern Asia under King Ashoka, who was at first known as 'Ashoka the Cruel' but later became a disciple of Buddhism and became known as 'Dhamma Ashoka'. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended, as did the Sunga and Khārabēḷa Empire, to be replaced by the Gupta Empire. The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra, in Magadha.

Magadha Dynasties[edit]

Haryankasup dynasty[edit]

Main article: Haryankasup dynasty

According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 600 BC, whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. This dynasty lasted until 424 BC, when it was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions arted from Magadha. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira revived and propagated the ancient religion ofJainism. Bimbisara was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquest. The land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. Bimbisara (543–493 BCE) was imprisoned and killed by his son Ajatashatru who thus became his successor and is thought to have reigned from 493 to 461 BCE; under his rule the dynasty's territory reached its largest extent.

Licchavi was an ancient republic which existed in what is now Bihar state of India, since before the birth of Mahavira (born 599 BC),^[7][8] Vaishali was the capital of the Same place of Bihar Licchavis and the Vajjian Confederacy. The local courtesan Ambapali, famous for her beauty, helped in large measure in making the city prosperous.^[9] Ajatashatru went to war with the Licchavi several times. Ajatashatru also moved the capital of the Magadha kingdom from Rajagriha to Pataliputra. Udaybhadra eventually succeeded his father,Ajatashatru; under him Pataliputra became the largest city in the world.

The kingdom endured a series of particularly bloody successions. Anuruddha eventually succeeded Udaybhadra through assassination; his son Munda succeeded him in the same fashion, as in turn did his son Nagadasaka. It is thought that a civil revolt due in part to these murderous dynastic quarrels led to the emergence of the Nanda dynasty.

Shishunaga dynasty[edit]

Main article: Shishunaga dynasty

According to tradition, the Shishunaga dynasty expanded the Magadha Empire in 413 BC. This dynasty was succeeded by the Nanda dynasty. Shishunaga (also called King Sisunaka) was the founder of a dynasty of 10 kings, collectively called the Shishunaga dynasty. The Shishunaga dynasty in its time was one of the largest empires of the Indian subcontinent.

Nanda dynasty[edit]

Main article: Nanda Dynasty

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent

The Nanda dynasty was established by Mahapadma Nanda, said to be an illegitimate son of king Mahanandin of the previous Shishunaga dynasty. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. Their empire reached its greatest extent under the leadership of Dhana Nanda, but after his reign the Nandas were replaced by the Maurya dynasty.

Maurya dynasty[edit]

Main article: List of Mauryan rulers

The Maurya Empire at its greatest extent (Ashoka's empire)

In 321 BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning Nanda king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya Empire. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta not only conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, but also pushed its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east.

The Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, built during the Mauryan period

The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India. From Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen.

Extent of the Sunga Empire

Sunga dynasty[edit]

Main article: Sunga Empire

The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pushyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne.

Kanva dynasty[edit]

Main article: Kanva dynasty

The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BC to 26 BC. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty Devbhuti was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 73 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 60 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kingdomreplaced the Magandhan kingdom as the most powerful Indian state.

Gupta dynasty[edit]

Main article: Gupta Empire

Gupta Empire (240 to 550 AD)

The Gupta dynasty ruled from around AD 240 to 550. The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India.^[10][11] This period has been called the Golden Age of India^[12] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.^[13] Thedecimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period.^[14] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.^[15]

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.^[16] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.^[17] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, the Malay Archipelago, and Indochina.

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers—Chandragupta I (c. 319–335), Samudragupta (c. 335–376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376–415) —brought much of India under their leadership.^[18] They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.^[19] However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.^[20][21]

Kings of Magadha[edit]

Haryanka dynasty (c. 600 – 413 BC)[edit]

• Bhattiya or
• Bimbisara (543–491 BC)
• Ajatashatru (491–460 BC)
• Udayabhadra
• Anuruddha
• Munda
• Nagadasaka

Shishunaga dynasty (413–345 BC)[edit]

• Shishunaga (413–395 BC)
• Kakavarna Kalashoka (395–367 BC)
• Mahanandin (367–345 BC)

Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BCE)[edit]

• Mahapadma Nanda Ugrasena (from 345 BC), illegitimate son of Mahanandin, founded the Nanda Empire after inheriting Mahanandin's empire
• Pandhuka
• Panghupati
• Bhutapala
• Rashtrapala
• Govishanaka
• Dashasidkhaka
• Kaivarta
• Dhana Nanda (Agrammes, Xandrammes) (until 321 BC), overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya

Maurya Dynasty (324–184 BC)[edit]

• Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrakottos) (324–301 BC), the greatest emperor of ancient India, founded the Mauryan Empire after defeating both the Nanda Empire and the Macedonian Seleucid Empire
• Bindusara or Amritrochates (301–273 BC)
• Ashoka Vardhana (Ashoka the Great) (273–232 BC), considered the greatest ancient Indian emperor, first emperor to unify India (after conquering most of South Asia and Afghanistan), adopt Buddhism, grant animal rights and promote non-violence, a secular administrator,often called the emperor of all ages.
• Dasaratha (232–224 BC)
• Samprati (224–215 BC)
• Salisuka (215–202 BC)
• Devavarman (202–195 BC)
• Satadhanvan (195–187 BC), the Mauryan Empire had shrunk by the time of his reign
• Brihadrata (187–184 BC), assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga

Shunga Dynasty (185–73 BC)[edit]

• Pushyamitra Shunga (185–149 BC), founded the dynasty after assassinating Brihadrata
• Agnimitra (149–141 BC), son and successor of Pushyamitra
• Vasujyeshtha (141–131 BC)
• Vasumitra (131–124 BC)
• Andhraka (124–122 BC)
• Pulindaka (122–119 BC)
• Ghosha
• Vajramitra
• Bhagabhadra, mentioned by the Puranas
• Devabhuti (83–73 BC), last Sunga king

Kanva Dynasty (73–26 BC)[edit]

• Vasudeva (c. 73 – c. 66 BCE)
• Bhumimitra (c. 66 – c. 52 BCE)
• Narayana (c. 52 – c. 40 BCE)
• Susarman (c. 40 – c. 26 BCE)

Gupta Dynasty (c. AD 240–550)[edit]

• Sri-Gupta I (c. 240–290)
• Ghatotkacha (290–305)
• Chandra Gupta I (305–335), founder of the Gupta Empire, which is often regarded as the golden age of Indian culture
• Samudra Gupta (335–370)
• Rama Gupta (370–375)
• Chandra Gupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) (375–415), son of Samudra Gupta, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith under his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien describes Indian culture during his reign
• Kumara Gupta I (415–455)
• Skanda Gupta (455–467)
• Kumara Gupta II (467–477)
• Buddha Gupta (477–496)
• Chandra Gupta III (496–500)
• Vainya Gupta (500–515)
• Narasimha Gupta (510–530)
• Kumara Gupta III (530–540)
• Vishnu Gupta (c. 540–550)

See also[edit]

• Śiśunāga dynasty
• Nanda dynasty
• List of Legendary Kings of Magadha

1. 
   

Chandragupta Maurya
Samrat Chakravartin
Statue of Chandragupta Maurya at the Birla Mandir, Delhi
Maurya Emperor
Reign	322BC - 298BC
Predecessor	Dhana Nanda of the Nanda Empire
Successor	Bindusara
Spouse	Durdhara
Issue	Bindusara
House	Maurya
Born	340 BC [बैसाख कृष्ण पक्ष चतुर्दशी ] Pataliputra, Bihar, India
Died	298 BC Shravanbelgola, Karnataka, India[1]

Chandragupta Maurya (340 BC – 298 BC) was the founder of the Maurya Empire and the first emperor to unify most of Greater India into one state. He ruled from 322 BC until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favour of his son Bindusara in 298 BC.^[2][3][4]

Chandragupta Maurya was a pivotal figure in the history of India. Prior to his consolidation of power, most of South Asia was ruled by small states, while the Nanda Empire dominated the Indus-Gangetic Plain.^[5]Chandragupta succeeded in conquering and subjugating almost all of the Indian subcontinent by the end of his reign,^{[nb 1]} except the Tamil regions (Chera, Chola and Pandya) and Kalinga. His empire extended fromBengal in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan in the west, to the Himalayas and Kashmir in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. It was the largest empire yet seen in Indian history.^[6][7]

After unifying much of India, Chandragupta and his chief advisor Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political reforms. He established a strong central administration patterned after Chanakya’s text on politics, the Arthashastra (English: "Economics and political science"). Maurya India was characterised by an efficient and highly organised bureaucratic structure with a large civil service. Due to its unified structure, the empire developed a strong economy, with internal and external trade thriving and agriculture flourishing. In both art and architecture, the Maurya Empire made important contributions, deriving some of its inspiration from the culture of the Achaemenid Empire and the Hellenistic world.^[8] Chandragupta's reign was a time of great social and religious reform in India. Buddhism and Jainism became increasingly prominent.

In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokottos and Androcottus.^[4] He became well known in the Hellenistic world for conquering Alexander the Great's easternmost satrapies, and for defeating the most powerful of Alexander's successors, Seleucus I Nicator, in battle. Chandragupta subsequently married Seleucus's daughter to formalize an alliance and established a policy of friendship with the Hellenistic kingdoms, which stimulated India's trade and contact with the western world. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes, who visited the Maurya capital Pataliputra, is an important source of Maurya history.

Chandragupta was Jain by faith. In the last years of his reign he took Jaineshwari Diksha from Shrutakevali Bhadrabahu to be a Muni. So he abdicated his throne and with the sangha he had gone to spend his last days atShravanabelagola, a famous religious site in south India, where he fasted to death. Along with his grandson, Ashoka, Chandragupta Maurya is one of the most celebrated rulers in the history of India and is also known asSamrat Chakravartin. He has played a crucial role in shaping the national identity of modern India, and has been lionised as a model ruler and as a national hero.

Contents

  [hide] 

• 1 Early life
• 2 Foundation of the Maurya Empire
  • 2.1 Nanda army
  • 2.2 Conquest of the Nanda Empire
  • 2.3 Conquest of Macedonian territories in India
• 3 Expansion
  • 3.1 Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories
  • 3.2 Southern conquest
• 4 Jainism and death
• 5 Successors
• 6 In popular culture
• 7 See also
• 8 References
  • 8.1 Notes
  • 8.2 Footnotes
• 9 Further reading
• 10 External links

Early life[edit]

See also Ancestry of Chandragupta Maurya Very little is known about Chandragupta's youth and ancestry. What is known is gathered from later classical Sanskrit literature, as well as classical Greek and Latin sources which refer to Chandragupta by the names "Sandracottos" or "Andracottus."^[9]

Many Indian literary traditions connect him with the Nanda Dynasty in modern day Bihar in eastern India. More than half a millennium later, the Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa calls him a "Nandanvaya" i.e. the descendant of Nanda (Act IV). Chandragupta was born into a family left destitute by the death of his father, chief of the migrant Mauryas, in a border fray.^[10] Mudrarakshasa uses terms like kula-hina and Vrishala for Chandragupta's lineage. This reinforces Justin's contention that Chandragupta had a humble origin.^[11][12]On the other hand, the same play describes the Nandas as of Prathita-kula, i.e. illustrious, lineage. The Buddhist text the Mahavamsa calls Chandragupta a member of a division of the(Kshatriya) clan called the Moriya i.e. Mor clan or gotra of Jat people. TheMahaparinibbana Sutta states that the Moriyas (Mauryas) belonged to the Kshatriya community of Pippalivana i.e. possibly Pipli on the outskirts of Kurukshetra. These traditions indicate that Chandragupt came from a Kshatriya lineage. The Mahavamshatikaconnects him with the Shakya clan of the Buddha, a clan which also belongs to the race of Ādityas.^[13]

In Buddhist tradition, Chadragupta Maurya was a member of the Kshatriyas and that his son, Bindusara, and grandson, the famous Buddhist Ashoka, were of Kshatriya lineage, perhaps of the Sakya line. (The Sakya line of Kshatriyas is considered to be the lineage of Gautama Buddha, and Ashoka Maurya billed himself as "Buddhi Sakya" in one of his inscriptions.) ^[14]

A medieval inscription represents the Maurya clan as belonging to the solar race of Kshatriya s. It is stated that the Maurya line sprang from Suryavamsi Mandhatri, son of prince Yuvanashva of the solar race.^{[citation needed]} Chandragupta was a student of Chanakya.

Plutarch reports that he met with Alexander the Great probably around Takshasila in the northwest, and that he viewed the ruling Nanda Empire in a negative light:

Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth.

—Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Life of Alexander 62.9

According to this text, the encounter would have happened around 326 BCE, suggesting a birth date for Chandragupta around 340 BCE. Plutarch and other Greco-Roman historians appreciated the gravity of Chandragupta Maurya's conquests. Justin describes the humble origins of Chandragupta, and explains how he later led a popular uprising against the Nanda king.^[15]

Foundation of the Maurya Empire[edit]

Further information: Magadha and Maurya Empire

Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.

Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya, defeated the Magadha king and the army of the Chandravanshi clan. Following his victory, the defeated generals of Alexander settled in Gandhara (the Kambojakingdom), today's Afghanistan. At the time of Alexander's invasion, Chanakya was a teacher in Takshasila. The king of Takshasila and Gandhara, Ambhi (also known as Taxiles), made a peace treaty with Alexander. Chanakya, however, planned to defeat the foreign invasion and sought help from other kings to unite and fight Alexander. Parvateshwara (Porus), a king of Punjab, was the only local king who was able to challenge Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes River, but he was defeated.

Chanakya then went further east to Magadha, to seek the help of Dhana Nanda, who ruled the vast Nanda Empire which extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to Punjab and Sindh in the west,^[15] but Dhana Nanda refused to help him. After this incident, Chanakya began to persuade his disciple Chandragupta of the need to build an empire that could protect Indian territories from foreign invasion.

Nanda army[edit]

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nandacirca 323 BCE.

Main article: Nanda Dynasty

The Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BCE) originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BC. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in the east, to Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.^[1] The rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth which they accumulated. The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders in the recorded history of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates). According to Plutarch however, the size of the Nanda army was even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 war elephants.^[6] However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to see their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for his forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. This river thus marks the eastern-most extent of Alexander's conquests.

The Beas River ( Hindi: ब्यास, Punjabi: ਬਿਆਸ, Sanskrit: विपाशा 'Vipasha' ) is a river in north India. The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh, India, and flows for some 470 kilometres (290 mi) to the Sutlej River in the Indian state of Punjab

The Nandas were also renowned for their immense wealth. They undertook irrigation projects and invented standardized measures for trade across their empire, and they ruled with the assistance of many ministers.^[2] The Nanda Dynasty was also mentioned in the ancient Sangam literature of the Tamil people. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described the capital city Pataliputra of the Nanda Dynasty and the wealth and treasure that was accumulated by the great Nanda rulers.^[7] Their unpopularity, possibly due to their "financial extortion", facilitated a revolution, leading to their overthrow by Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya. Nevertheless, "the greatness [...] attained in the Maurya Age would hardly have been possible but for the achievements of their predecessors", the Nandas.

According to Plutarch, at the time of the Battle of the Hydaspes River, the Nanda Empire's army numbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 7,000 war elephants, which discouraged Alexander's men and prevented their further progress into India:

“	"As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at‑arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. And there was no boasting in these reports. For Androcottus, who reigned there not long afterwards, made a present to Seleucus of five hundred elephants, and with an army of six hundred thousand men overran and subdued all India."	”
—Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Life of Alexander" 62.1-4

In order to defeat the powerful Nanda army, Chandragupta needed to raise a formidable army of his own.^[15]

Conquest of the Nanda Empire[edit]

Further information: Nanda Dynasty

Main article: Nanda War

Chandragupta's empire when he founded it c. 320 BCE, by the time he was about 20 years old.

Chanakya had trained and guided Chandragupta and together they planned the destruction of Dhana Nanda. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus.^[16]

It is noted in the Chandraguptakatha that Chandragupta and Chanakya were initially rebuffed by the Nanda forces. Regardless, in the ensuing war, Chandragupta faced off against Bhadrasala, the commander of Dhana Nanda's armies. He was eventually able to defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana Nanda in a series of battles, culminating in the siege of the capital city Pataliputra^[15] and the conquest of the Nanda Empire around 321 BCE,^[15]thus founding the powerful Maurya Empire in Northern India by the time he was about 20 years old.

Conquest of Macedonian territories in India[edit]

Main article: Seleucid–Mauryan war

Chandragupta had defeated the remaining Macedonian satrapies in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent by 317 BCE.

After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Chandragupta turned his attention to Northwestern South Asia (modern Pakistan), where he defeated the satrapies (described as "prefects" in classical Western sources) left in place by Alexander (according to Justin), and may have assassinated two of his governors, Nicanor and Philip.^[3][15] The satrapies he fought may have included Eudemus, ruler in western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE; and Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE. The Roman historian Justin described how Sandrocottus (Greek version of Chandragupta's name) conquered the northwest:

“	"Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander, a wild elephant of great bulk presented itself before him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down to gentleness, took him on its back, and became his guide in the war, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, having thus acquired a throne, was in possession of India, when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness; who, after making a league with him, and settling his affairs in the east, proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus. As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates were united, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius put to flight. "	”
—Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.19

Expansion[edit]

Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories[edit]

Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.

Chandragupta extended the borders of his empire towards Seleucid Persia after his conflict with Seleucus c. 305 BCE.

Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian satrap of Alexander, reconquered most of Alexander's former empire and put under his own authority the eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into conflict with Chandragupta:

Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus. He crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Some of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward.

—Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55

The exact details of engagement are not known. As noted by scholars such as R. C. Majumdar and D. D. Kosambi, Seleucus appears to have fared poorly, having ceded large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. Due to his defeat, Seleucus surrendered Arachosia (modern Kandahar), Gedrosia (modern Balochistan), Paropamisadae (or Gandhara).^[17][18]

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.^[19][20] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Maurya rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan.

After having made a treaty with him [Sandrakotos] and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus.

—Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants,^{[17][21][22][23][24][25]} a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 302 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Maurya court at Pataliputra (modern Patnain Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Maurya court.^[26]

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:

And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love.

—Athenaeus of Naucratis, Deipnosophistae, I.32

Southern conquest[edit]

After annexing Seleucus' eastern Persian provinces, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern parts of Indian Sub-continent, from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Chandragupta then began expanding his empire further south beyond the barrier of the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau except the Tamil regions (Pandya, Chera, Chola and Satyaputra) and Kalinga (modern day Odisha).^[15] The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature also described how the Deccan Plateauwas invaded by the Maurya army.^[27] By the time his conquests were complete, Chandragupta had succeeded in unifying most of Southern Asia. Megasthenes later recorded the size of Chandragupta's army as 400,000 soldiers, according to Strabo:

Megasthenes was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of 400,000 men.

—Strabo, Geographica, 15.1.53

On the other hand, Pliny, who also drew from Megasthenes' work, gives even larger numbers of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants:

But the Prasii surpass in power and glory every other people, not only in this quarter, but one may say in all India, their capital Palibothra, a very large and wealthy city, after which some call the people itself the Palibothri,--nay even the whole tract along the Ganges. Their king has in his pay a standing army of 600,000-foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants: whence may be formed some conjecture as to the vastness of his resources.

—Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4

Jainism and death[edit]

Cave in Karnataka said to be the death place of Chandragupta

Purportedly the mark of Chandragupta's footprints in Karnataka, India, not far from the cave where he observed fasts in accordance with Jain beliefs.

According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta gave up his throne at the beginning of the third century BC when he was forty-two years old and became an ascetic under the last Shrutakevali Bhadrabahu, migrating south with them and ending his days in sallekhana (death by fasting) according to Jain spiritual tradition at Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa in present day Karnataka, though fifth-century inscriptions in the area support the concept of a larger southern migration around that time.^{[clarification needed][28] [29]}

Successors[edit]

Main article: Maurya Empire

Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne to his son, Bindusara, who became the new Maurya Emperor. Bindusara maintained friendly relations with Greek governors in Asia and Egypt. Bindusara's son Ashoka the Great became one of the most influential kings in India's history due to his important role in the history of Buddhism.

In popular culture[edit]

• Chanakya's role in formation of the Maurya Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novel The Courtesan and the Sadhu by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash.^[30]

• The story of Chanakya and Chandragupta was made into a film in Telugu Language in 1977 titled Chanakya Chandragupta. Akkineni Nageswara Rao played the role of Chanakya, while N. T. Rama Rao portrayed asChandragupta.^[31]

• The television series Chanakya is an account of the life and times of Chanakya, based on the play "Mudra Rakshasa" (The Signet Ring of "Rakshasa").

• Also there was a television series on Imagine TV called Chandragupt Maurya^[32]

• The Indian Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Chandragupta Maurya in 2001.^[33]

• In the American comic strip Pearls Before Swine a girl named "Carla" mentions the story of him becoming an ascetic, although she says monk, and starving to death.^[34]

 with Bimbisara.

Bindusara
Samrat Chakravartin
Maurya Emperor
Reign	298 BC – c. 272 BC
Coronation	298 BC
Predecessor	Chandragupta Maurya
Successor	Ashoka the Great
Issue	Susima Ashoka Vitashoka Tissa
Full name Bindusara Maurya
Dynasty	Maurya
Father	Chandragupta Maurya
Mother	Durdhara
Born	320 BC
Died	272 BC (aged 48)
Religion	Ajivika[1]

Bindusara Maurya (c. 320 BC – 272 BC) was emperor of the Maurya Empire from 298 BC – 272 BC. During his reign, the empire expanded southwards. He had two well-known sons, Susima and Ashoka, who were the viceroys of Takshashila and Ujjain. The Greeks called him Amitrochates or Allitrochades – the Greek transliteration for the Sanskrit word 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of enemies). He was also called 'Ajatashatru' (Man with no enemies) in Sanskrit^[2][3](not to be confused with Ajatashatru who ruled Magadha empire 491 BC – 461 BC and was son of King Bimbisara).

Contents

  [hide] 

• 1 Life
• 2 Bindusara's Empire
• 3 Administration during Bindusara's Reign
• 4 Cultural depictions
• 5 References

Life[edit]

Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his Empress consort, Durdhara. According to the Rajavalikatha a Jain work, the original name of this emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta's Guru and advisor Chanakya used to feed the emperor with small doses of poison to build his immunity against possible poisoning attempts by the enemies.^[4] One day, Chandragupta not knowing about poison, shared his food with his pregnant wife, Durdhara who was 7 days away from delivery. The empress not immune to the poison collapsed and died within few minutes. Chanakya entered the room the very time she collapsed, and to save the child in the womb, he immediately cut open the dead empress' womb and took the baby out, by that time a drop of poison had already reached the baby and touched its head due to which child got a permanent bluish spot (a "bindu") on his forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara".^[5]

Bindusara, just 22-year-old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara didn't conquer the Dravidian kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by KingIlamcetcenni^{[citation needed]}, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (the modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's empire. It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign.

According to a legend, Chandragupta, though fond of his son, believed that he would never be a great king as he was never learned to love anything passionately, whether be it any of his wives or religion or the empire itself.

Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the mediaeval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans."^[6] During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Suseema, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.

Ambassadors from the Seleucid Empire (such as Deimachus) and Egypt visited his courts. He maintained good relations with the Hellenic World.

Unlike his father Chandragupta (who turned to Jainism in the later part of his life), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (alias Janasana) was a Brahmin^[7] of the Ajivika sect. One of Bindusara's wives, Rani Subhadrangi (alias Queen Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin^[8] also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is accredited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).^[9]

Bindusara died in 272 BC (some records say 268 BC) and was succeeded by his son Ashoka the Great.

Bindusara's Empire[edit]

Bindusara extended his empire further as far as south Mysore. He conquered sixteen states and extended the empire from sea to sea. The empire included the whole of India except the region of Kalinga(modern Orissa) and the Tamil kingdoms of the south. Kalinga was conquered by Bindusara's son Ashoka.

Early Tamil poets speak of Mauryan chariots thundering across the land, their white pennants brilliant in the sunshine. Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending the Mauryan empire in the peninsula to as far as Mysore. He is said to have conquered 'the land between the two seas', presumably the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Administration during Bindusara's Reign[edit]

Bindusara maintained good relations with Seleucus Nicator and the emperors regularly exchanged ambassadors and presents. He also maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic West established by his father. Ambassadors from Syria and Egypt lived at Bindusara's court. He preferred the Ajivika philosophy rather than Jainism.

Apparently he was a man of wide interest and taste, since tradition had it that he asked Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist:

“

But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says, There's really nothing nicer than dried figs), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander from Delphi who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[10]

ee Aśoka (film).

Ashoka The Great
Samraat Chakravartin
A c. 1st century BCE/CE relief from Amaravati,Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh (India). Preserved in Guimet Museum, Paris (2005). The tall figure shown may have been Asoka.
Maurya Emperor
Reign	269–232 BCE
Coronation	269 BCE
Predecessor	Bindusara
Successor	Dasaratha
Spouse	Devi Karuvaki Padmavati Tishyaraksha
Issue	Mahendra Sanghamitra Tivala Kunala Jaluka[citation needed] Charumati
Dynasty	Maurya
Father	Bindusara
Mother	Dharma or Shubhadrangi
Born	304 BCE, Close to 7 Aug Pataliputra, Patna
Died	232 BCE (aged 72) Pataliputra, Patna
Burial	Cremated 232 BCE, less than 24 hours after death[citation needed] Ashes immersed in the GangesRiver, possibly atVaranasi[citation needed]
Religion	Buddhism

Ashoka Maurya (/əˈʃoʊkə/; Sanskrit: अशोक मौर्य; 304–232 BCE), commonly known as Ashoka and also as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of theMaurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE.^[1] One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over a realm that stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in the west to Bengal in the East and covered the entire Indian subcontinent except parts of present dayTamil Nadu and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Bihar), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.

In about 260 BCE Ashoka waged a bitterly destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern Odisha).^[2] He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done.^[3] He embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. "Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations."^[4] Ashoka converted gradually to Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE.^[2] He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia, and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. "Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural foundation for political unity."^[5] Ashoka is now remembered as a philanthropic administrator. In the Kalinga edicts, he addresses his people as his "children", and mentions that as a father he desires their good.

Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka – the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka." His name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" in Sanskrit(the a privativum and śoka "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "The Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin(Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or the "Ashoka tree" is also referenced in the Ashokavadana.

H.G. Wells wrote of Ashoka in his book The Outline of History: "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star." Along with theEdicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the 2nd-century Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Ashoka," a part of Divyavadana), and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa("Great Chronicle"). The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka.

Contents

  [hide] 

• 1 Biography
  • 1.1 Ashoka's early life
  • 1.2 Rise to power
  • 1.3 Early life as emperor
• 2 Conquest of Kalinga
  • 2.1 Buddhist conversion
  • 2.2 Death and legacy
    • 2.2.1 Buddhist kingship
• 3 Historical sources
• 4 Perceptions
  • 4.1 Foci of debate
• 5 Contributions
  • 5.1 Approach towards Religions
  • 5.2 Global spread of Buddhism
  • 5.3 As Administrator
  • 5.4 Ashoka Chakra
  • 5.5 Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)
  • 5.6 Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra)
  • 5.7 Constructions credited to Ashoka
• 6 In art, film and literature
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 Bibliography
• 10 External links

Biography[edit]

Ashoka's early life[edit]

Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife of his, Dharmā [or Dhammā]. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of Mauryan dynasty. TheAvadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī. According to Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa.^[6]:205 Empress Subhadrangī was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect,^[7] and was found to be a suitable match for Emperor Bindusara. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor, this eventually ended, and she bore a son. It is from her exclamation "I am now without sorrow," that Ashoka got his name. The Divyāvadāna tells a similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.^[8][9]

Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from other wives of Bindusara. His fighting qualities were apparent from an early age and he was given royal military training. He was known as a fearsome hunter, and according to a legend, killed a lion with just a wooden rod. Because of his reputation as a frightening warrior and a heartless general, he was sent to curb the riots in theAvanti province of the Mauryan empire.^[10]

Rise to power[edit]

Approximate extent of Maurya empire under Asoka. The empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal to southern India

The Buddhist text "Divyavadana" describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times.Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, one of Bindusara's great lords, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt. Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujjayini as governor.^[9]

Bindusara's death in 272 BCE led to a war over succession. According to Divyavandana, Bindusara wanted his son Sushim to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found Sushim to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them.^[11] A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindusara would determine his successor. Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the Ashokavadana, would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne. The Dipavansa andMahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Vitashoka or Tissa,^[9] although there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). The coronation happened in 269 BCE, four years after his succession to the throne.

Early life as emperor[edit]

A c. 1910 painting by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951) depicting Asoka's queen standing in front of the railings of the Buddhist monument at Sanchi(Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh).

Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was bad-tempered and of a wicked nature. He built Ashoka's Hell, an elaborate torture chamber described as a "Paradisal Hell" due to the contrast between its beautiful exterior and the acts carried out within by his appointed executioner, Girikaa.^[12] This earned him the name of Chanda Ashoka (Caṇḍa Aśoka) meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends intend to dramatise the change that Buddhism brought in him, and therefore, exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.^[13]

Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day boundaries Assam in the East to Iran in the West; from the Pamir Knot in the north to the peninsula of southern India except for present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala which were ruled by the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.^[9]

Conquest of Kalinga[edit]

While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over 150,000 were deported.^[14] When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his conquest, rejoicing in his victory, he was moved by the number of bodies strewn there and the wails of the kith and kin of the dead.

Buddhist conversion[edit]

A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an intact Ashoka Pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing another largerDharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions.

Edict 13 on the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:

His Majesty feels remorse on account of the conquest of Kalinga because, during the subjugation of a previously unconquered country, slaughter, death, and taking away captive of the people necessarily occur, whereat His Majesty feels profound sorrow and regret.

The edict goes on to address the even greater degree of sorrow and regret resulting from Ashoka's understanding that the friends and families of deceased would suffer greatly too.^[15]

Legend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous monologue:^{[16][dubious – discuss]}

What have I done? If this is a victory, what's a defeat then? Is this a victory or a defeat? Is this justice or injustice? Is it gallantry or a rout? Is it valor to kill innocent children and women? Did I do it to widen the empire and for prosperity or to destroy the other's kingdom and splendor? One has lost her husband, someone else a father, someone a child, someone an unborn infant.... What's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat? Are these vultures, crows, eagles the messengers of death or evil?

The lethal war with Kalinga transformed the vengeful Emperor Ashoka to a stable and peaceful emperor and he became a patron of Buddhism. Whether or not he converted to Buddhism is unclear ^[17] although Buddhist tradition mentions so. According to the prominent Indologist, A. L. Basham, Ashoka's personal religion became Buddhism, if not before, then certainly after the Kalinga war. However, according to Basham, the Dharma officially propagated by Ashoka was not Buddhism at all.^[18] Romila Thapar argues ^[19] that modern day historians argue his conversion into Buddhism, in the aftermath of the Kalinga war. She argues that Ashoka curiously refrained from engraving his confession anywhere.

Nevertheless, his patronage led to the expansion of Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule, and worldwide from about 250 BCE.^[20] Prominent in this cause were his sonMahinda (Mahendra) and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).

Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali

Archaeological evidence for Buddhism between the death of the Buddha and the time of Ashoka is scarce; after the time of Ashoka it is abundant.

Death and legacy[edit]

Ashoka's Major Rock Edict atJunagadh contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradamanna I andSkandagupta.

Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years. Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.^[21] After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years until his empire stretched over almost all of the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. His supreme consort and first wife was Vidisha Mahadevi Shakyakumari Asandhimitra. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by her, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making Buddhism more popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism.

In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala, the regent in Takshashilaand the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka heard Kunala's song, and realised that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself. He condemned Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does not respond with the same forgiveness.^[12] Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.

The reign of Ashoka Maurya might have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, had he not left behind records of his reign. These records are in the form of sculpted pillars and rocks inscribed with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published under his name. The language used for inscription was Prakrit.

In the year 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Shunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty (185 BCE-75 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, is also considered as one of the most exemplary rulers ever lived.^[22]

Buddhist kingship[edit]

Main articles: History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India

Further information: Buddhism in Nepal, Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Buddhism in Burma

One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately led to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.

According to the legends mentioned in the 2nd-century CE text Ashokavadana, Ashoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, the founder of Jainism). On complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.^[6][23] Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower inPataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.^[23] He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.^[6] These stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be a clear fabrication arising out of sectarian propaganda.^[24][25]

Historical sources[edit]

Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa

Ashoka was almost forgotten by the historians of the early British India, but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.

Bilingual inscription (in Greek andAramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered atKandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan).

Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Ashoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi – 'He who regards everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Maurya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.

Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by Ashoka during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.^[26]

Ashokavadana – The Ashokavadana is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text, and its world is that of Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashoka’s conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka’s character that are not available in the widely known Pali records.^[12]

A Punch-marked Coin of Ashoka^[27]

Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of Ashoka.

Dwipavamsa -The Dwipavamsa, or "Dweepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believed to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century. King Dhatusena (4th century CE) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at theMahinda festival held annually in Anuradhapura.

Perceptions[edit]

The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept.

However, there is strong evidence in the edicts alone that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, there are many edicts expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. Finally, the ideals he promotes correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.^[28]

Interestingly, the Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the familiar Ashoka; one in which his conversion does not have anything to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core, from a wellspring inside himself (not so much necessarily spurred by a specific event). It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. This Ashoka is very different from the "shadowy do-gooder" of later Pali chronicles.^[12]

Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.^[29] These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BCE. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.

Foci of debate[edit]

Recently scholarly analysis determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism, and what is referred to in the Inscriptions as dhamma or dharma, which connotes goodness, virtue, and charity. Some historians^[who?] have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire, while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated." The dhamma of the Edicts has been understood as concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion," or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices.^[26]

Contributions[edit]

Approach towards Religions[edit]

According to Indian historian Romila Thapar, Ashoka emphasized respect for all religious teachers, harmonious relationship between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees.^[30] Ashoka's religion contained gleanings from all religions and he made a law that prohibited anyone from any act or word against any religion.^{[citation needed]} He emphasized on the virtues ofAhimsa, respect to all religious teachers, equal respect for and study of each other's scriptures, and on rational faith.

Global spread of Buddhism[edit]

Stupa of Sanchi.

As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of stupas,Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddhas relics.^[21] In the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, Ashoka takes offerings to each of these stupas traveling in a chariot adorned with precious metals.^[21] He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni). Ashoka also sent many prominent Buddhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and Afghanistan; Maharaskshit Sthavira to Syria, Persia / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and Turkey; Massim Sthavira to Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mongolia; Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern Cambodia, Laos, Burma (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand), Thailand and Vietnam; Mahadhhamarakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha); Maharakhhit Sthavira and Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India.

Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism.^[31] Ashoka helped and respected both Sramans (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.

It is well known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread hisdhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seem in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.^[32]

In his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remains:

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.

— Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika)^[33]

It is not too far-fetched to imagine, however, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).^[32]

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII^[34]).

As Administrator[edit]

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

Ashoka's military power was strong, but after his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with three major Tamil kingdoms in the South namelyCheras, Cholas and Pandyas, the post Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi. His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common people.^[29]

Ashoka banned the slaughter and eating of the common cattle, and also imposed restrictions on fishing and fish-eating.^[35] He also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.^[36] Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents."^[37]

Ashoka Chakra[edit]

Main article: Ashoka Chakra

The Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)"

The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (see Dharmacakra) or Dhammachakka in Pali, the Wheel of Dharma (Sanskrit: Chakra means wheel). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnath and The Ashoka Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.

The Ashoka Chakra was built by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or "self-repeating process." The process it signifies is the cycle of time- as in how the world changes with time.

A few days before India became independent on August 1947, the specially formed Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities.^[38] A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.

Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)[edit]

Main article: Pillars of Ashoka

The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.

The Ashokan pillar at Lumbini,Nepal, Buddha's birthplace

Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra)[edit]

Main article: Lion Capital of Ashoka

The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four lions standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Ashoka Column is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.

The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on an abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra").

The Ashoka Lion capital or the Sarnath lion capital is also known as the national symbol of India. The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of monks." The Sarnath pillar is a column surmounted by a capital, which consists of a canopy representing an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower, a short cylindrical abacus with four 24-spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, a horse, a lion).

The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life.

• The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb.
• The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.
• The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life.
• The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha.

Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.

Constructions credited to Ashoka[edit]

Mahabodhi Temple, built on the site of an older temple by Ashoka the Great (circa 250 BCE); restoration by the British and India post independence

The British restoration was done by under guidance from Ven.Weligama Sri Sumangala^[39]

• Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India
• Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India
• Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
• Nalanda University (Vishwavidyalaya), (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India
• Taxila University (Vishwavidyalaya), (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan
• Bhir Mound, (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan
• Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
• Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan
• Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India: The only known sculptural depiction of Ashoka
• Mir Rukun Stupa Nawabshah, Pakistan

In art, film and literature[edit]

• Jaishankar Prasad, composed Ashoka ki Chinta (Ashoka's Anxiety), a poem that portrays Ashoka’s feelings during the war of Kalinga.
• Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude) a verse-play written by poet Agyeya, depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world.^[40][41]
• In Piers Anthony’s series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.
• Aśoka is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by Santosh Sivan. The films stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka.
• The Legend of Kunal is an upcoming film based on the life of Kunal, the son of the Indian emperor Ashoka. The movie will be directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi.
• In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka.
• In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka.
• Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat is a forthcoming television serial based on the life of Ashoka.

See also[edit]

• Arthashastra
• Ashoka's Major Rock Edict
• Ashokavadana
• Edicts of Ashoka
• Lion Capital of Ashoka
• Magadha
• Sisupalgarh
• Ashoka's policy of Dhamma
• 
  

See also[edit]

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