Rishabha, also known as Adinatha, is the traditional founder of Jainism. He was the first of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras or "ford-makers", teachers who established the Jain teachings. According to legends, he belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty of ancient Ayodhya.[2] His son was believed to be the first chakravartin. Rishabha is also known as Rikhava and is sometimes called Rishabha of Kosala.
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[hide]Historicity[edit]
Jains traditionally trace their history through a succession of twenty-four propagators of faith known as tīrthaṅkara. These tīrthaṅkara have legendary accounts of their life.[citation needed] Parshvanatha, is the earliest tīrthaṅkara who can be reliably dated; he lived in the 9th century BCE.[3][4] Tradition says that Mahāvīra's parents followed his teachings. However, the current knowledge about the history of India is not enough to say whether Pārśva decisively founded the Jain religion or not.[5] In this regard, Hermann Jacobi, a noted indologist, writes:[6]
Some contemporary historians are of the opinion that there exists some link between Rishabha and the Indus Valley Civilization.[6][7][8] However, these mentions of Rishabha in the Vedas have multiple interpretations. There is no conclusive evidence of him founding Jainism in Vedic literature. Rishabha was, however, worshiped as the first tīrthaṅkara and the founder of Jainism from the 4th or 3rd century BCE.[9]
In Literature[edit]
There is mention of Rishabha in Hindu scriptures, including the Purana. The Bhagavata Purana states that
In the Skanda Purana (chapter 37) it is stated that "Rishabha was the son of Nabhi, and Rishabha had a son named Bharata, and after the name of this Bharata, this country is known as Bharata-varsha."[10]
Rishabha also finds mention in Buddhist literature. It speaks of several jaina tirthankara which includes Rishabha along with Padmaprabha, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta, Vimalnatha, Dharmanatha and Neminatha. A Buddhist scripture named Dharmottarapradipa mentions Rishabha as an Apta (Tirthankara).[11]
The Ādi purāṇa, a 10th-century Kannada language text by the poet Adikavi Pampa (fl. 941 CE), written in Champu style, a mix of prose and verse and spread over sixteen cantos, deals with the ten lives of Rishabha and his two sons.[12][13] The life of Rishabha is also given in Mahapurana of Jinasena.[14]
Legends[edit]
Rishabha was born to Nabhi Raja and Marudevi at Ayodhya before human civilization was much developed.[15] People were primitive and illiterate and he taught them agriculture, tending of animals, cooking, poetry, painting, sculpture and similar arts.[2][16] He introduced karma-bhumi (the age of action).[17] The institution of marriage, ceremony of cremating the dead and festivals in honour of gods like Indra and Naga came into existence.[18][2] He introduced a total of seventy-two sciences which includes arithmetic, the plastic and visual arts, the art of lovemaking, singing and dancing.[18] He taught people how to extract sugarcane juice. The name for the Ikshvaku dynasty comes from the word ikhsu (sugarcane) because of this event.[19] His kingdom was kind and gentle[18] and he is credited with transforming a tribal society into an orderly one.[20] Like any Tirthankara and other legendary figures of Indian history (who were great warriors), he too was a great warrior with great strength and body. However, he never needed to show his warrior aspect.[18] Rishabha is known for advocating non-violence.[18] He was one of the greatest initiators of human progress.[2]
Rishabha had two wives. One of them was Sunanda and the other is given different names, Yasaswati, Nanda and Sumangala, in different texts. He had one hundred sons and two daughters.[21] Among these, Sunanda was the mother of Bahubali and Sundari whereas Sumangala was the mother of Bharat and Brahmi.[22] Bharata, Rishabha's eldest son, was a chakravartin who later attained moksha and hence is worshipped as a siddha by the Jains. India was named 'Bhāratavarsha' or Bhārata after him.[2][23]
Rishabha gave his kingdom to his two sons Bharata and Bahubali. Bharata received the northern half of his kingdom with Ayodhya as the capital whereas Bahubali received the southern half with the city Podanapur.[24] He then became an ascetic. His aim was to cause less harm to others and keep no possessions.[20] Some of the scriptures mention that a nymph named Nilanjana was sent by Indra for the purpose of awakening Rishabha to renounce the world.[25] Nilanjana was one of the favorite dancers of Rishabha. Indra staged the dancer's sudden death in order to awaken Rishabha and make him preach Jainism.[26] The sudden fatal death of Nilanjana gave Rishabha a desire for renunciation.[27] Rishabha was the first human to attain enlightenment. He traveled far and wide and preached Jainism.[28] He had his first alms as an ascetic in the town of Hastinapur. Jains celebrate this event on the third day of bright fortnight of the month Vaishaka.[29] While traveling, he came across a mountain named Ashtapada, which is famously known as mount Kailash. Gods created a divine preaching hall known as samavasarana at this mountain for Rishabha.[28] He attained liberation on Mount Kailasa at the age of 84 lakh purva (5,927,040,000,000,000; where one purva equals 84*8,400,000).[17] His preachings were recorded in fourteen scriptures known as Purva.[30]
Iconography[edit]
Rishabha is usually depicted in lotus position or kayotsarga, a standing posture of meditation. The distinguishing mark of Rishabha is his long locks of hair which fall on his shoulders and an image of a bull in his sculptures.[31] His paintings usually depict various important events of his legend. Some of these include his marriage and the Hindu god Indra marking his forehead. He is shown presenting a bowl to his followers and teaching them the art of pottery, painting a house, weaving textile. The visit of his mother Marudevi is also shown extensively in painting.[32]
Cook Islands[edit]
Jainism and the history of Lord Adinath(Rishabhadev) is very important to the people that live on the Cook Islands. A commerative coin of Lord Adinath was recently released by the Cook Islands.[33][34]
In Hinduism, Rishabha is the eighth Avatar of Vishnu of the twenty-two incarnations listed in the Bhagavata Purana.[1]
Rishabha Rishi is also mentioned in the Markandeya, Vayu, Brahmanda, Skanda, and Vishnu Puranas.
His most important lesson he taught mankind was that material possessions cause envy and unhappiness.
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[hide]Birth[edit]
He appeared in the womb of Marudevi, the wife of King Nabhi. The King underwent many severe austerities and penance to please Vishnu to get a son like Vishnu. Vishnu accepted his plea and thus appeared as Rishabha, son of King Nabhi and Marudevi.
Children[edit]
He followed the orders of his guru and accepted a wife named Jayanti, who had been given to him by the king of heaven, Indra. He begot a hundred sons by Jayanti.
Of his hundred sons, the eldest was known as Jadabharata, who became a Chakravartin. Since his reign, the Indian subcontinent has been called Bharatavarsa. Rsabha's other sons were headed by Kusavarta, Ilavarta, Brahmavarta, Malaya, Ketu, Bhadrasena, Indrasprk, Vidarbha and Kikata. There were also other sons named Kavi, Hari, Antariksha, Prabuddha, Pippalayan, Avirhotra, Drumil, Chamas and Karabhajan. Instead of ruling the kingdom, these nine became mendicant preachers, following the religious precepts of the Bhagavata Purana. It is written that they were "Shramana vatarashana", orShramanas clothed in the wind. Their characteristics and activities are described in the Eleventh Canto of the Bhagavata Purana during the talks between Vasudeva and Narada at Kuruksetra. To teach the general populace, Rishabha performed many sacrifices and taught his sons how to rule the citizens.[2] Thus Rishabha was an ideal father, who gave apt instructions to his sons. The instructions of Rishabha to his sons are present in Canto 5, Chapter 5 of the Bhagavata Purana.
Relation to Shiva[edit]
Several scholars have connected Rishabha to Lord Shiva, especially through the Indus Valley Civilization's iconography such as the meditative pose of a yogin who is also called by many as the Pasupatiform of Lord Shiva. Lord Shiva is also known as Gopati-Rishabha.
Many epithets that have been applied to Lord Shiva have also been applied to Rishabha; these include Aghora, Ishana, Sadyojata, and Vamadeva.[3] The influence of Lord Shiva is clearly noticeable on theMahapurana, in as much as the Puranakara has called Lord Rishabha as tripurari, trilochana, trinetra, tryambaka, and tryakshna.
In one legend, there is a Saint Rishabh who came to Bhadrayuva unexpectedly, and taught him a great mantra called the Shivakavacha.[4]
In the "Brahmottara-candam" section of the Brahma Purana, the narrator Suta describes many matters relating to Shaivism and in the 16th portion, there is a story about Bhadrabahu receiving instructions in a mantra from Rishabha yogi.[5]
The Linga Purana mentions that in every kali yuga, Lord Shiva has incarnated, and that in one kali yuga he was a Yogeshwara (one of His 28 incarnations) named Rishabha.[6]
Relation to Vishnu[edit]
According to some Vaishnava scriptures, Rishabha is an avatara of Vishnu. The Bhagavata Purana is the first to make this claim.
This claim is also confirmed by Jain Acharya Jinasena who claims in his Adipurana that Rishabha is indeed Krishna and Vishnu.[7] Jainism may have made the claim of Rishabha being Krishna and Vishnu before Vaishnavism, as the composition of the Bhagavata Purana is some time between the first part of the 6th century to the 9th century.[8]
Relation to Jainism[edit]
Main article: Rishabha
Jains regards Rishabha as the first Tirthankara.
Jain are in conformity with the Vedas in reference to both the Vedas' and Jainism' acceptance of the 24 Tirthankaras. Of Rishabha, as a Tirthankara, is written:
It claims that Rishabha was the first human to achieve Moksha in the present age, the release from rebirths. As per Jainism there is no beginning or end for souls. So Rishabha is the first Thirthankara for this cycle which ended with Mahavira. There were Thirthankaras before and will be after Rishabha.
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In Jainism, a Tīrthaṅkara is a person who has conquered samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth, and can provide a bridge for Jains to follow them fromsamsara to moksha (liberation).[1][2]:126 According to scripture, that which helps one to cross samsara is a tīrtha ("ford") and a person who fills that role is atīrthaṅkara ("ford-maker").[3]
Twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. The 24th tīrthaṅkara of the current cycle was Mahavira.[2]
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[hide]Overview[edit]
The tīrthaṅkaras' teachings form the basis for the Jain canons. The inner knowledge of tīrthaṅkara is believed to be perfect and identical in every respect and their teachings do not contradict one another. However, the degree of elaboration varies according to the spiritual advancement and purity of the society during their period of leadership. The higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind of the society, the lower the elaboration required.
While tīrthaṅkaras are documented and revered by Jains, their grace is said to be available to living beings, regardless of religious orientation.[4]
Tīrthaṅkaras dwell exclusively within the realm of their Soul, and are entirely free of kashayas, inner passions, and personal desires. As a result of this, unlimited siddhis, or spiritual powers, are readily available to them – which they use exclusively for the spiritual elevation of living beings. Through darśana, divine vision, and deshna, divine speech, they grant their own state of kevalajñana, and moksha, final liberation to anyone seeking it sincerely.
At the end of his human life-span, a tīrthaṅkara achieves siddha status, ending the cycle of infinite births and deaths.
Jainism postulates that time has no beginning or end. It moves like the wheel of a cart. Jains believe that exactly twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in each half-cycle of time in this part of the universe. The first tīrthaṅkara was Rishabha, who is credited for formulating and organising humans to live in a society harmoniously. The 24th and last tīrthaṅkara was Mahavira (599-527 BC).
Particular tīrthaṅkaras[edit]
Tīrthaṅkara images are usually seated with their legs crossed in front, the toes of one foot resting close upon the knee of the other, and the right hand lying over the left in the lap.[1]
In Jain tradition the tīrthaṅkaras were royal in their final lives, and Jain traditions record details of their previous lives, usually as royalty. Their clan and families are also among those recorded in very early, or legendary, Hindu history. All but two of the Jains are ascribed to the Ikshvaku dynasty. Munisuvrata, the twentieth, and Neminatha, the twenty-second, were of the Harivamsa. Jain canons state that Rishabha, the first tīrthaṅkara, founded the Ikshvaku dynasty.
Twenty tīrthaṅkaras achieved “siddha” status on Shikharji. Rishabha attained nirvana on Mount Kailash, Vasupujya at Champapuri in North Bengal, Neminatha onGirnar in Gujarat, and Mahavira, the last tīrthaṅkara, at Pawapuri, near modern Patna. Twenty-one of the tīrthaṅkaras are said to have attained moksha in thekayotsarga “standing meditation” posture, while Rishabha, Neminatha and Mahavira are said to have attained moksha in the lotus position.
List of the 24 tīrthaṅkaras[edit]
In chronological order, the names, emblems and colours of the 24 tīrthaṅkaras of this age are mentioned below:[1]
| Number | Name | Emblem | Colour |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rishabha | Bull | Golden |
| 2 | Ajitanatha | Elephant | Golden |
| 3 | Sambhavanatha | Horse | Golden |
| 4 | Abhinandananatha | Ape | Golden |
| 5 | Sumatinatha | Heron | Golden |
| 6 | Padmaprabha | Lotus | Red |
| 7 | Suparshvanatha | Swastika | Golden |
| 8 | Chandraprabha | Moon | White |
| 9 | Pushpadanta | Dolphin or Makara (sea dragon) | White |
| 10 | Shitalanatha | Shrivatsa | Golden |
| 11 | Shreyanasanatha | Rhinoceros | Golden |
| 12 | Vasupujya | Buffalo | Red |
| 13 | Vimalanatha | Boar | Golden |
| 14 | Anantanatha | Hawk or ram or bear | Golden |
| 15 | Dharmanatha | Thunderbolt | Golden |
| 16 | Shantinatha | Antelope or deer | Golden |
| 17 | Kunthunatha | Goat | Golden |
| 18 | Aranatha | Nandyavarta or fish | Golden |
| 19 | Mallinatha | Water jug | Blue |
| 20 | Munisuvrata | Tortoise | Black |
| 21 | Naminatha | Blue lotus | Golden |
| 22 | Neminatha | Conch shell | Black |
| 23 | Parshvanatha | Snake | Green |
| 24 | Mahavira | Lion | Golden |
Future tīrthaṅkaras[edit]
In every time-cycle, 48 Tirthankar are born in two batches of 24. In the current time cycle, the first 24 are the ones listed above. The names of the next 24 are as follows. (Mentioned in the parentheses is (one of) the soul's previous human births.)
- Padmanabh (King Shrenik)
- Surdev (Mahavir's uncle Suparshva)
- Suparshva (King Kaunik's son king Udayi)
- Svamprabh (The ascetic Pottil)
- Sarvanubhuti (Shravak Dridhayadha)
- Devshruti (Kartik's shreshti)
- Udaynath (Shravak Shamkha)
- Pedhalputra (Shravak Anand)
- Pottil (Shravak Sunand)
- Shatak (Sharavak Shatak)
- Munivrat (Krishna's mother Devaki)
- Amam (Lord Krishna)
- Shrinishkashay (Satyaki Rudhra)
- Nishpulak (Krishna's brother Balbhadra also known as Balrama)
- Nirmam (Shravika Sulsa)
- Chitragupt (Krishna's brother's mother Rohini)
- Samadhinath (Revati Gathapatni)
- Samvarnath (Sharavak Shattilak)
- Yashodhar (Rishi Dwipayan)
- Vijay (Arjuna of Mahabharata)
- Malyadev (Nirgranthaputra or Mallanarada)
- Devachandra (Shravak Ambadh)
- Anantvirya (Shravak Amar)
- Shribhadrakar (Shanak)
See also[edit]
| een suggested that Asrava be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since January 2013. |
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Jain metaphysics is based on seven (sometimes nine, with subcategories) truths or fundamental principles also known as tattva or navatattva, which are an attempt to explain the nature and solution to the human predicament. The first two are the two ontological categories of the soul jīva and the non-soul ajīva, namely the axiom that they exist. The third truth is that through the interaction, called yoga, between the two substances, soul and non-soul, karmic matter flows into the soul (āsrava), clings to it, becomes converted into karma and the fourth truth acts as a factor of bondage (bandha), restricting the manifestation of the consciousness intrinsic to it. The fifth truth states that a stoppage (saṃvara) of new karma is possible through asceticism through practice of right conduct, faith and knowledge. An intensification of asceticism burns up the existing karma – this sixth truth is expressed by the word nirjarā. The final truth is that when the soul is freed from the influence of karma, it reaches the goal of Jaina teaching, which is liberation or mokṣa.[1] Some authors add two additional categories: the meritorious and demeritorious acts related to karma (puṇya and pāpa). These nine categories of cardinal truth, called navatattva, form the basis of entire Jain metaphysics. The knowledge of these reals is essential for the liberation of the soul.
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[hide]Jīva[edit]
Jainism believes that the souls (jīva) exist as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. Jīva is characterised by cetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception).[2] Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul.[3]
Ajīva[edit]
Ajīva are the five non-living substances that make up the universe along with the jīva. They are:
- Pudgala (Matter) –Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter or ultimate particles.[4] Paramānu or ultimate particles are considered the basic building block of all matter. One of the qualities of the Paramānu and Pudgala is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created nor destroyed.
- Dharma-tattva (Medium of Motion) and Adharma-tattva (Medium of rest) – They are also known as Dharmāstikāya and Adharmāstikāya. They are unique to Jain thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharma-tattva and adharma-tattva are by themselves not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and without adharmāstikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
- Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.
- Kāla (Time) – Time is a real entity according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through time. In Jainism, the time is likened to a wheel with twelve spokes divided into descending and ascending halves with six stages, each of immense duration estimated at billions ofsagaropama or ocean years.[5] According to Jains, sorrow increases at each progressive descending stage and happiness and bliss increase in each progressive ascending stage.
Āsrava[edit]
Asrava (influx) refers to the influence of body and mind causing the soul to generate karma. It occurs when the karmic particles are attracted to the soul on account of vibrations created by activities of mind, speech and body.[6]
According to the Nava Tatva Sutra, there are forty-two asravas or ways through which the soul is exposed to the inflow of karmas. Of the forty-two, five are senses, four are passions (kashayas, viz. anger, pride, love and covetousness), five are sins (avratas, viz. killing, stealing, lying, adultery and worldliness), three are activities (yogas, viz. mental, verbal and physical activity) and twenty-five are "minor asravas", individual acts such as "walking carelessly", "lending a weapon", "wishing ill to any being", "the reception of a gift", "the exercise of cunning" or "accusing any of the Jain books of falsehood", etc.
The āsrava, that is, the influx of karmic occurs when the karmic particles are attracted to the soul on account of vibrations created by activities of mind, speech and body.[7] Tattvārthasūtra, 6:1–2 states:[8] "The activities of body, speech and mind is called yoga. This three-fold action results in āsrava or influx of karma."[9] The karmic inflow on account of yoga driven by passions and emotions cause a long term inflow of karma prolonging the cycle of reincarnations. On the other hand, the karmic inflows on account of actions that are not driven by passions and emotions have only a transient, short-lived karmic effect.[10][11]
Bandha[edit]
The karmas have effect only when they are bound to the consciousness. This binding of the karma to the consciousness is called bandha. However, the yoga or the activities alone do not produce bondage. Out of the many causes of bondage, passion is considered as the main cause of bondage. The karmas are literally bound on account of the stickiness of the soul due to existence of various passions or mental dispositions.[6]
Pāpa and Punya[edit]
In many texts punya or spiritual merit and papa or spiritual demerit are counted among the fundamental reals. But in Tattvārthasūtra the number of tattvas is seven because both punya and papa are included in āsrava or bandha. Both punya and papa are of two types — dravya type (physical type) and a bhava type (mental type).[12]
Saṃvara[edit]
Main article: Samvara
Saṃvara is stoppage of karma. The first step to emancipation or the realization of the self is to see that all channels through which karma has been flowing into the soul have been stopped, so that no additional karma can accumulate. This is referred to as the stoppage of the inflow of karma (saṃvara).[13] There are two kinds of saṃvara: that which is concerned with mental life (bhava-saṃvara), and that which refers to the removal of karmic particles (dravya- saṃvara). This stoppage is possible by self-control and freedom from attachment. The practice of vows, carefulness, self-control, observance of ten kinds of dharma, meditation, and the removal of the various obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, and passion stops the inflow of karma and protect the soul from the impurities of fresh karma.
Nirjarā[edit]
Main article: Nirjara
Nirjarā is the shedding or destruction of karmas that has already accumulated. Nirjarā is of two types: the psychic aspect of the removal of karma (bhāva-nirjarā) and destruction of the particles of karma (dravya-nirjarā).[13] Karma may exhaust itself in its natural course when its fruits are completely exhausted. In this, no effort is required. The remaining karma has to be removed by means of penance (avipaka-nirjarā). The soul is like a mirror which looks dim when the dust of karma is deposited on its surface. When karma is removed by destruction, the soul shines in its pure and transcendent form. It then attains the goal of mokṣa.
Mokṣha[edit]
 | This section does not cite any references or sources. (February 2013) |
Mokṣha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge and infinite perception. Such a soul is called siddha or paramatman and considered as supreme soul or God. InJainism, it is the highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve. It fact, it is the only objective that a person should have; other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With right faith, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state. That is why, Jainism is also known as mokṣamārga or the “path to liberation”.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ *Soni, Jayandra; E. Craig (Ed.) (1998). "Jain Philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (London: Routledge). Retrieved 2008-03-05.
- ^ Nayanar, Prof. A. Chakravarti (2005). Pañcāstikāyasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda. New Delhi: Today & Tomorrows Printer and Publisher. ISBN 81-7019-436-9. , Gāthā 16
- ^ Nayanar, Prof. A. Chakravarti (2005). Pañcāstikāyasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda. New Delhi: Today & Tomorrows Printer and Publisher. ISBN 81-7019-436-9. , Gāthā 18
- ^ Shah, Natubhai (1998). Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Volume I and II. Sussex: Sussex Academy Press. ISBN 1-898723-30-3.
- ^ James, Edwin Oliver (1969). Creation and Cosmology: A Historical and Comparative Inquiry. Netherland: BRILL. ISBN 90-04-01617-1. p. 45
- ^ a b Jaini, Padmanabh (1998), The Jaina Path of Purification, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 112, ISBN 81-208-1578-5
- ^ Jaini, Padmanabh (1998). The Jaina Path of Purification. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1578-5. p.112
- ^ Kuhn, Hermann (2001). Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate. Wunstorf, Germany: Crosswind Publishing. ISBN 3-9806211-4-6. p. 26
- ^ Tatia, Nathmal (1994). Tattvārtha Sūtra: That Which Is of Vācaka Umāsvāti (in Sanskrit - English). Lanham, MD: Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0-7619-8993-5. p.151
- ^ Tatia, Nathmal (1994) p.152
- ^ Kuhn, Hermann (2001). p.33
- ^ Sanghvi, Sukhlal (1974). Tattvārthasūtra of Vācaka Umāsvāti (in trans. K. K. Dixit). Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology.
- ^ a b T. G. Kalghatgi, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 15, No. 3/4, (Jul. - Oct., 1965), pp. 229-242 University of Hawai Press
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References[edit]
- ^ Matchett, Freda (2001). Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu. 9780700712816. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-7007-1281-6.
- ^ Bhagvata Purana. Canto 5, Chapter 4 Summary
- ^ P. 119 Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 54, Indian History Congress
- ^ P. 99 100 Stories: Stories from Indiann Mythology: Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda By Avadhoota Datta Peetham, Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda Swamiji
- ^ P. 88, Madras Journal of Literature and Science, Volume 11 By Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society
- ^ P. 16 Linga Purana By Vinay. The list is in order is: Shweta, Sutara, Madana, Suhotra, Kanchana, Lokakshee, Jagishavya, Dadhivahana, Rishabha, Muni, Ugra, Atri, Vali, Gautama, Vedashrira, Gokarna, Guhavasi, Shikhandabhriti, Jatamali, Attahasa, Daruka, Langali, Mahakaya, Shuli, Mundishvara, Sahishnu, Somasharma, and Jagadguru.
- ^ Adipurana pt. i, ch. 14, v. 51, p. 309;P. 31 Jainism In Early Medieval Karnataka By Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh
- ^ Estimated dates given by some notable scholars include: R. C. Hazra – 6th century, Radhakamal Mukherjee – 9th–10th century, Farquhar – 10th century, Nilakanta Sastri – 10th century, S. N. Dasgupta – 10th centuryKumar Das 2006, pp. 172–173
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