The Conquests of Jerusalem: Messianic Aspirations and the Evolution of the Jewish Exilarchate (614 CE – 638 CE)

Executive Summary

The following briefing document synthesizes historical and religious analysis regarding the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614 CE and the subsequent Islamic conquest in 638 CE. Central to these events is the role of the Babylonian Jewish Exilarch (Resh-Galuta), the secular leader of world Jewry, whose nationalistic and messianic ambitions drove alliances with both the Sassanid Persians and the early Islamic Caliphate.

https://filedn.eu/l8NQTQJmbuEprbX2ObzJ3e8/Blogger%20Files/Jerusalem_s_Forgotten_Alliances.pdf

Critical Takeaways:

• The Exilarchate’s Restoration Agenda: Throughout the 6th and 7th centuries, the Davidic Exilarchs sought the restoration of the Jewish state and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem, often operating in opposition to the cautious, pacifist stance of the Rabbinic academies.
• The 614 CE Persian-Jewish Alliance: Led by Nehemiah ben Hushiel, a Jewish army of 20,000 assisted the Persians in seizing Jerusalem. This attempt at restoration ended in disaster, Persian betrayal, and the massacre of Jewish forces.
• The 638 CE Judeo-Arab Alliance: Following the Persian failure, the Exilarch’s family, specifically Shallum (Salman Farsi), pivoted toward an alliance with the Prophet Muhammad and later Caliph ‘Umar, framing the early Islamic expansion as a joint effort to liberate Jerusalem from Byzantine-Christian rule.
• Religious Transformation: To maintain political stability, the Islamic Caliphate eventually marginalized militant Jewish messianism, officially recognizing Rabbinic Judaism—which discouraged nationalism—as the "true" form of Judaism.
• Archeological and Literary Legacy: Significant structures on the Temple Mount, including the original Masjid al-Aqsa, are presented as having origins tied to these Jewish-Islamic rebuilding efforts, while much of the history of this era was later censored or suppressed in Rabbinic and Christian literatures.

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I. The Institution of the Jewish Exilarch (Resh-Galuta)

The Exilarch served as the secular and military leader of the Jewish Diaspora, claiming direct descent from King David. Based in the Persian Empire (Babylon), the office wielded significant semi-autonomous power.

Origins and Power Base

• Babylonian Foundation: The office originated with King Jehoiachin during the Babylonian exile (c. 597 BCE). The Exilarchs bore the title Resh-Galuta (King of the Exiles).
• Strategic Strongholds: Centers of power included Nehardea and Ctesiphon. Nehardea was a fortified treasury where Temple taxes were stored.
• Geopolitical Influence: The Exilarchs managed a "buffer zone" for the Persians against Rome, at times commanding their own armies and managing canal commerce.

Conflict with Rabbinic Authorities

• Divergent Goals: While the Exilarchs pursued nationalistic restoration, Rabbinic opinion (Talmudic) argued that the Temple would be built only by the Messiah, not by man.
• Censorship: Literature hinting at nationalistic restoration, such as Sefer Zerubavel, was often censured by Rabbinic figures as running counter to the Torah.
• The Role of the Geonim: The heads of the academies (Sura and Pumbedita) eventually collaborated with the Caliphate to suppress Jewish nationalism in favor of a spiritual, non-political Judaism.

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II. The Persian Conquest and the "Jewish Crusade" (614 CE)

Driven by the desire to avenge the murder of Byzantine Emperor Maurice by the usurper Phocas, Persian King Khosrau II invaded Roman territories, utilizing the Jewish Exilarchate as a strategic ally.

The Rise of Nehemiah ben Hushiel

• Appointment: Khosrau II appointed Nehemiah ben Hushiel (son of the Exilarch) as the symbolic leader of the Persian troops in 608 CE.
• Military Force: Nehemiah mobilized a Jewish army of 20,000 men.
• Victory in Jerusalem: In 614 CE, combined Judeo-Persian forces took Jerusalem by storm. Nehemiah was installed as the ruler of Jerusalem and began arrangements to rebuild the Temple and establish a new High Priesthood.

Disaster and Betrayal

• Christian Revolt: Months into his rule, a Christian mob killed Nehemiah and his council, dragging their bodies through the streets.
• Persian Pivot: After the initial victory, the Persians grew wary of Jewish independence. Khosrau II betrayed the alliance, ordered Jewish soldiers to leave the city, and banned Jews from settling within a three-mile radius.
• The Massacre at the Golden Gate: In 619 CE, the Persians withdrew support, allowing Byzantine forces to slaughter the remaining 20,000 Jewish troops outside the Golden Gate.

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III. The Judeo-Arab Alliance and Early Islam

The failure of the Persian alliance led the Exilarch’s family to seek a new partner: the emerging Islamic movement in Arabia.

The Role of Shallum (Salman Farsi)

The document identifies Shallum ben Hushiel, brother of the slain Nehemiah, as the historical Salman Farsi.

• Exilarchic Descent: Shallum was a Jewish prince who fled Persian persecution, was sold into slavery in Arabia, and eventually became a primary counselor to the Prophet Muhammad.
• Military Innovation: Shallum suggested the digging of the trench (Khandaq) to defend Medina, a strategy previously unknown to the Arabs.
• Translation of the Qur’an: Shallum was the first to translate parts of the Qur’an into a foreign language (Persian).

Pre-Islamic Religious Unity

The sources propose that 600 years before the Prophet, Jews and Arabs were considered "one nation with one common religion" (Sadducean Judaism).

• Temple Sympathizers: Many Arab tribes were viewed as "limited" Jews who performed pilgrimages (Hagg) and shared in Temple offerings.
• The Pledges of Al-Aqabah: The "council of the righteous"—twelve Jewish refugees from Edessa—met the Prophet at Mecca and pledged allegiance, seeing him as the fulfillment of a prophecy that would lead to the reconquest of Israel.

The Shift of the Qiblah

Originally, the Prophet and his followers prayed toward Jerusalem. This changed due to:

• Byzantine Desecration: Emperor Heraclius ordered the Temple Mount used as the city's latrine in an affront to Jewish and Sadducean purity laws.
• Distinction: The change of prayer direction to Mecca served to distinguish the Prophet’s followers from the Rabbinite Jews while still maintaining the sanctity of the "House of God."

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IV. The Islamic Conquest of Jerusalem (638 CE)

Under Caliph ‘Umar, Jerusalem was taken not as a mission of slaughter, but as one of "mercy" intended to liberate the city and the Jews from Byzantine oppression.

The Entry of Caliph ‘Umar

• Cleaning the Mount: Upon entering the city, ‘Umar was horrified by the filth on the Temple Mount. He personally assisted in clearing the dung and debris.
• The Wooden Temple: ‘Umar permitted Jewish soldiers and their Sadducean-Muslim allies to construct a wooden house of prayer on the southern side of the Mount.
• Division of the City: ‘Umar established policies that segmented Jerusalem into religious quarters, allowing seventy Jewish families from Tiberias to settle near the Temple Mount to form a new Sanhedrin.

Construction of the Sanctuaries

• Masjid al-Aqsa: Originally named Masjid as-Salman (Mosque of Salman/Shallum), this structure was built to serve Jews, Jewish converts to Islam, and Muslims.
• Dome of the Rock: The document suggests the Dome of the Rock was initially a shrine utilized by both Muslims and Christians (People of the Book), explaining the Christian-centric nature of its early inscriptions.

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V. Political and Sectarian Schisms

The aftermath of the conquests saw a struggle for the soul of the new Islamic state, involving militant Jewish factions and more moderate Rabbinic leadership.

The Extremist Movements (Al-Ghulat/Kharajites)

• Heman (Abdullah ibn Saba): Identified as the son of Shallum, Heman became an extremist leader. He was implicated in a plot to frame Christians by desecrating the Al-Aqsa mosque with animal remains to incite a massacre.
• The Kharajite Rebellion: Heman helped found the rebel Khawarji movement, which opposed the centralizing power of the Caliphate and eventually led to the assassination of Caliph ‘Ali.

The Triumph of Rabbinism

To stabilize the empire, Caliph ‘Umar and later Mu’awiyah formally recognized the non-militant Rabbinic academies.

• Appointment of Bustenai: Following Heman’s removal, ‘Umar installed the scholar Bustenai as Exilarch. Bustenai was granted the daughter of the Persian King as a wife and held supreme judicial authority over the Jewish population.
• The Pact: In exchange for political recognition and protection, the Rabbinic leaders agreed to suppress Jewish nationalism and messianism, a role they maintained throughout the Islamic era.

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VI. Key Figures and Chronology

Timeline of Significant Events

Date (CE)	Event
70	Destruction of the Second Temple by Rome.
115-117	Trajan's War; Kitos War; widespread Jewish revolts in Cyprus, Egypt, and Cyrene.
132-135	Bar Kochba Revolt; short-lived independent Jewish kingdom.
513-520	Mar Zutra II establishes an independent Jewish state in Persia; later crucified.
518-525	Dhu Nuwas, the "Lord of Sidelocks," rules the Jewish kingdom of Himyar in Arabia.
614	Persian-Jewish alliance conquers Jerusalem; Nehemiah ben Hushiel installed as ruler.
619	Massacre of Jewish forces at the Golden Gate by Byzantine troops.
622	The Hijrah; Prophet Muhammad arrives in Medina (Yathrib).
638	Caliph ‘Umar enters Jerusalem; Judeo-Arab alliance established.
691-692	Dome of the Rock completed by ‘Abd al-Malik.

Comparative Roles in the Conquests

Feature	614 CE (Persian Conquest)	638 CE (Islamic Conquest)
Primary Ally	Sassanid Persians	Early Islamic Caliphate
Jewish Leader	Nehemiah ben Hushiel	Shallum (Salman Farsi) / Heman
Jewish Force	20,000 soldiers	Unknown numbers; "Helpers" (Ansar)
Outcome	Disaster; betrayal and massacre.	Stabilization; segmented religious rule.
Religious Result	Suppression of Messianism.	Recognition of Rabbinic Judaism.

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VII. Concluding Observations

The sources indicate that the early Islamic conquests were deeply intertwined with Jewish nationalistic hopes. The current antagonism between the two faiths is presented as a departure from an original "Judeo-Islamic" context where the Caliphate rescued the Jewish population from total annihilation by the Byzantine Empire. The eventual dominance of Rabbinic Judaism was a political necessity for the Caliphate, ensuring that the "militant" messianic energy that drove the 614 and 638 conquests would be channeled into non-political scholarship.