| Jewish mysticism |
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Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941), distinguishes between different forms of mysticism across different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah, which emerged in 12th-century Europe, is the most well known, but not the only typologic form, or the earliest to emerge. Among previous forms were Merkabah mysticism (c.0 - 1000 CE), and Chassidei Ashkenaz (early 1200s CE) around the time of Kabbalistic emergence.
Kabbalah means "received tradition", a term previously used in other Judaic contexts, but which the Medieval Kabbalists adopted for their own doctrine to express the belief that they were not innovating, but merely revealing the ancient hidden esoteric tradition of the Torah. This issue is crystallised until today by alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, the main text of Kabbalah. Traditional Kabbalists regard it as originating in Tannaic times, redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars regard it as a synthesis from Medieval times, but assimilating and incorporating into itself earlier forms of Jewish mystical tradition, as well as other philosophical elements.
The theosophical aspect of Kabbalah itself developed through two historical forms: "Medieval/Classic/Zoharic Kabbalah" (c.1175 - 1492 - 1570), and Lurianic Kabbalah (1569 CE - today) which assimilated Medieval Kabbalah into its wider system and became the basis for modern Jewish Kabbalah. After Luria, two new mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in Judaism:antinomian-heretical Sabbatean movements (1666 - 1700s CE), and Hasidic Judaism (1734 CE - today). In contemporary Judaism, the only main forms of Jewish mysticism followed are esoteric Lurianic Kabbalah and its later commentaries, the variety of schools in Hasidic Judaism, and Neo-Hasidism (incorporating Neo-Kabbalah) in non-Orthodox Jewish denominations.
Two non-Jewish syncretic traditions also popularised Judaic Kabbalah through its incorporation as part of general Western esoteric culture from the Renaissance onwards: theological Christian Cabala (c.1400s - 1700s) which adapted Judaic Kabbalistic doctrine to Christian belief, and its diverging occultist offshoot Hermetic Qabalah (c.1400s - today) which became a main element in esoteric and magical societies and teachings. As separate traditions of development outside Judaism, drawing from, syncretically adapting, and different in nature and aims from Judaic mysticism, they are not listed on this page.
Three aims in Jewish mysticism[edit]
The Kabbalistic form of Jewish mysticism itself divides into three general streams: the Theosophical/Speculative Kabbalah (seeking to understand and describe the divine realm), the Meditative/Ecstatic Kabbalah (seeking to achieve a mystical union with God), and the Practical/Magical Kabbalah (seeking to theurgically alter the divine realms and the World). These three different, but inter-relating, methods or aims of mystical involvement are also found throughout the other pre-Kabbalistic and post-Kabbalistic stages in Jewish mystical development, as three general typologies. As in Kabbalah, the same text can contain aspects of all three approaches, though the three streams often distill into three separate literatures under the influence of particular exponents or eras.
Within Kabbalah, the theosophical tradition is distinguished from many forms of mysticism in other religions by its doctrinal form as a mystical "philosophy" of Gnosis esoteric knowledge. Instead, the tradition of Meditative Kabbalah has similarity of aim, if not form, with usual traditions of general mysticism; to unite the individual intuitively with God. The tradition of theurgic Practical Kabbalah in Judaism, censored and restricted by mainstream Jewish Kabbalists, has similarities with non-Jewish Hermetic Qabalah magical Western Esotericism. However, as understood by Jewish Kabbalists, it is censored and forgotten in contemporary times because without the requisite purity and holy motive, it would degenerate into impure and forbidden magic. Consequently, it has formed a minor tradition in Jewish mystical history.
Historical forms of Jewish mysticism timeline[edit]
For a fuller list of Kabbalistic mystics and texts, see List of Jewish Kabbalists. This timeline shows general developments:
| Historical phase[1] | Dates | Influential developments and texts |
|---|---|---|
| Prophetic Judaism[2] | 800-500s BCE | Prophetic meditation, divine encounter, mystical elements: Isaiah Ezekiel Zechariah |
| Apocalyptic Judaism | Beginning 500s BCE 300-100 BCE | Mystical and apocalyptic speculation, heavenly angelology and eschatology: 1 Enoch Daniel |
| Mystical elements in Second Temple period sects | c.200 BCE-c.100 CE | Mystical and pious elements among sects in the late Second Temple period in Judea and the Diaspora: Hasideans Essenes Philo's Platonic philosophy influence on early Christianity Christian Jewish early Christian mysticism |
| Early Rabbinic mysticism and mystical elements in classicRabbinic literature[3] | c.100 BCE-130s CE influence to 400s CE | References in exoteric Talmud and Midrash to Tannaic early Rabbinic mystical circles, Maaseh Merkabah - Work of the Chariot exegesis and ascent, Maaseh Bereshit - Work of Creation exegesis. Wider continuing mystical elements in aggadah Rabbinic theology and narratives: Johanan ben Zakai and his disciples Rabbi Akiva (Simeon bar Yochai traditional/pseudepigraphical attribution of later Kabbalist Zohar) Mystical aggadot examples: Four who entered the Pardes Oven of Akhnai Bat Kol Torah: black fire on white fire, God looked in Torah to create World Shekhinah accompanies Israel in exile The Messiah at the Gates of Rome |
| Merkabah-Hekhalot esoteric texts and methods | c.100s-1000 CE | Traditional/pseudepigraphical/anonymous esoteric Merkabah mysticism Throne and Hekhalot Palaces ascent literature and methods. Text protagonists are early Tannaic Rabbis, though texts academically dated variously from Talmudic 100-500 CE to Gaonic 400-800 CE periods, and sectarian/rabbinic origins debated: Earlier texts: 3 Enoch Hekhalot Rabbati (The Greater Palaces) Hekhalot Zutari (The Lesser Palaces) Merkavah Rabbah (The Great Chariot) Later texts: Shi'ur Qomah (Divine Dimensions)  |
| Proto-Kabbalistic | 200-600 CE | Maaseh Bereshit - Creation speculation text. Describes 10 sephirot, though without their significance to later Kabbalah. Received rationalist interpretations before becoming a source text for Kabbalah: Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Formation) |
| Mystical elements in Medieval Jewish philosophy | 1000s-1200s CE | Mystical elements in the thought of Medieval rationalist Jewish philosophical theologians: Judah Halevi[4] Moses Maimonides[5] |
| Jewish Sufi piety | 1000s-1400s CE | Influence of Islamic Sufism on Jewish piety, including meditative experiential elements: Bahya ibn Paquda 1000s - Chovot HaLevavot (Duties of the Heart) Abraham Maimonides and the "Jewish Sufis" of Cairo 1200s-1400s |
| Early Kabbalah | c.1174-1200 CE | Emergence of Kabbalistic mystical theosophy in Southern France. The Bahir, regarded in academia as the first Kabbalistic work, incorporates an earlier source text: Sefer HaBahir (Book of Brightness) School of Isaac the Blind |
| Chassidei Ashkenaz | c.1150-1250 CE | Mystical-ethical piety and speculative theory in Ashkenaz-Germany. Shaped by Merkabah-Hekhalot texts, Practical Kabbalah magical elements, Rhineland Crusader persecutions and German monastic values: Samuel of Speyer Judah of Regensburg - Sefer Hasidim (Book of the Pious) Eleazar of Worms |
| Medieval Kabbalahdevelopment | c.1200-1492 CE | Alternative philosophical vs. mythological interpretations of Kabbalistic theosophy: "Neoplatonic" quasi-philosophical hierarchy, and Jewish-"Gnostic" mythological interest in the demonic motifs. Centred in Spain's Kabbalistic golden age:.jpg){kind=small} Early 1200s Girona neoplatonic school: Azriel of Gerona Nahmanides (Ramban) - Torah commentary 1200s Castile gnostic school: Treatise on the Left Emanation  The Zohar in Spain from c.1286: Moses de León - Sefer HaZohar (Book of Splendour). Castile's gnostic culmination. Subsequent Zohar exegesis dominated other Medieval Kabbalah traditions Kabbalistic scholarship: Joseph Gikatilla - Shaarei Orah (Gates of Light) c.1290 Spain Sefer HaTemunah (Book of the Figure) 1200s-1300s influential doctrine in Kabbalah of Cosmic Cycles, later rejected by Cordovero and Luria[6]  Practical-magical Kabbalah: Sefer Raziel HaMalakh |
| Medieval Prophetic andMeditative Kabbalah | 1200s-1500s CE | Medieval Meditative Kabbalah developed its own traditions.[7] Abraham Abulafia's meditative system of Prophetic Kabbalah, his alternative to the Theosophical Kabbalah, embodies the non-Zoharic ecstatic stream in Spanish Kabbalism: Abulafian Prophetic Kabbalah school: Abraham Abulafia Mediterranean area late 1200s Judah Albotini Jerusalem 1400s-1500s Other meditative methods: Isaac of Acco 1300s Joseph Tzayach Damascus and Jerusalem 1500s |
| Post-1492 and SafedKabbalah | 1500s CE | Transition from esoteric Medieval Kabbalism to Kabbalah as a national messianic doctrine, after 1492 Expulsion from Spain exile. Jewish renaissance of Palestine: Meir ibn Gabbai 1500s early systemiser  Safed-Galilee Kabbalists: Joseph Karo legalist and mystic Shlomo Alkabetz Moses Cordovero (Ramak) - Pardes Rimonim. Cordoverian systemisation of Medieval Kabbalah until 1570 Isaac Luria (the Ari) - new post-Medieval Lurianic systemisation taught 1570-1572 Hayim Vital main Lurianic compiler and other writings Safed Meditative Kabbalah: Vital - Shaarei Kedusha (Gates of Holiness), Luria - Yichudim method |
| Maharal's mystical theology | 1500s CE | Medieval Kabbalah expressed in non-Kabbalistic philosophical theology: Judah Loew (Maharal) Prague |
| Early Lurianic and post-medieval Kabbalism | 1500s-mid-1700s CE | Lurianism, the second of Kabbalah's two systems of theosophy after Medieval-Cordoverian Kabbalah, incorporating dynamic myth of exile and redemption in divinity taught by Isaac Luria 1570-72, and other post-medieval Kabbalah trends: Disciples compile Kitvei Ari Lurianic thought: Hayim Vital - Etz Hayim (Tree of Life) Israel Sarug spread Lurianism in Europe Lurianic exegesis and meditative methods dominated other post-medieval Kabbalah trends Popularising Kabbalistic Musar and homiletic literature 1550s-1750s: Moses Cordovero - Tomer Devorah (Palm Tree of Deborah) Eliyahu de Vidas - Reshit Chochmah (Beginning of Wisdom) Isaiah Horowitz (Shelah) - Shnei Luchot HaBrit (Tablets of the Covenant) Central Europe Kabbalistic scholarship: Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (Ramchal) Italian early 1700s public dissemination of Kabbalah Joseph Ergas  Central-Eastern Europe Practical Kabbalah: Baal Shem |
| Sabbatean movements | 1665-c.1800 CE | Kabbalistic messianic-mystical antinomian heresy: Sabbatai Zevi messianic claimant Nathan of Gaza Sabbatean prophet Moderate-crypto and radical-antinomian factions Emden-Eybeschutz controversy and Rabbinic excommunication of Sabbateans Sabbatean successors culminating in Jacob Frank-late 1700s Frankist nihilism |
| Early and formative Hasidic Judaism | 1730s-1850s CE | Eastern European mystical revival movement, popularising and psychologising Kabbalah through Panentheism and theTzadik mystical leader. Neutralised messianic danger expressed in Sabbateanism: Early Hasidism: Israel ben Eliezer (Baal Shem Tov, Besht) founder of Hasidism Dov Ber of Mezeritch (The Magid) systemiser and architect of Hasidism Jacob Joseph of Polonne Levi Yitzhak of Berditchev  Main Hasidic schools of thought (mystics after 1850s shown later): Mainstream Hasidic Tzadikism: Elimelech of Lizhensk - Noam Elimelech (Pleasantness of Elimelech) Yaakov Yitzchak of Lublin (The Chozeh) Chabad intellectual Hasidism - Russia: Shneur Zalman of Liadi - Tanya (Likutei Amarim-Collected Words) theorist of Hasidism[8] Aaron of Staroselye Breslav imaginative Hasidism - Ukraine: Nachman of Breslav - Likutei Moharan (Collected teachings) Nathan of Breslav Peshischa-Kotzk introspective Hasidism - Poland, mystical offshoot from: Mordechai Yosef Leiner of Izbica - Mei Hashiloach (Waters of Shiloah), personal illumination  Hasidic storytelling: Shivchei HaBesht (Praises of the Besht) published 1814 Sippurei Ma'asiyot (Stories that were told) Nachman of Breslav's 13 mystical tales 1816 |
| Later traditional Lurianic Kabbalah | 1700s CE-today | Traditionalist esoteric interpretations and practice of Lurianic Kabbalah from 1700s until today, apart from Hasidic adaptions: Brody Kloiz and pre-Hasidic Hasidim circles in Eastern Europe. Introverted esotericism response to Sabbatean heresy  Mitnagdic-Lithuanian non-Hasidic Kabbalah: Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman (Vilna Gaon, Gra) figurehead of Mitnagdim 1700s Chaim of Volozhin - Nefesh HaChaim (Soul of Life) theorist of Mitnagdism,[8] founder of Yeshiva movement  Mizrahi-Sephardi Oriental Kabbalah: Shalom Sharabi 1700s (from Yemen) and Beit El Synagogue (Jerusalem) introverted esotericism response to Sabbateanism. Lurianic explanation and elite meditation circle Yosef Hayyim (Ben Ish Chai) 1800s Hakham Baghdad Abuhatzeira Moroccan Kabbalist dynasty 20th century Ashkenazi European Kabbalah (apart from Hasidic thought): Shaar Hashamayim Yeshiva (Jerusalem) Yehuda Ashlag 1900s Israel - HaSulam (The Ladder) Lurianic Zohar |
| Later Hasidic Judaism | 1850s CE-today | Dynastic succession and modernising society turned Hasidism away from pre-1810s mystical revivalism, to post-1850s consolidation and rabbinic conservatism. Mystical focus continued in some schools: Chabad-Lubavitch - intellectual Hasidism communication Zadok HaKohen late 1800s Izbica school Aharon Roth early 1900s Jerusalem piety Kalonymus Kalman Shapira response to Holocaust Menachem Mendel Schneerson (Lubavitch Rebbe) Hasidic outreach and 1990s messianism Breslav contemporary mystical revivalism |
| Neo-Hasidism and Neo-Kabbalah | c.1900s CE-today | Non-Orthodox Jewish denominations' adapted spiritual teaching of Kabbalistic and Hasidic theology to modernist thought and interpretations: Early 1900s: Martin Buber existential Neo-Hasidism Post War and contemporary: Abraham Joshua Heschel Neo-traditional aggadic Judaism Zalman Schachter-Shalomi Jewish Renewal Arthur Green academic and theologian Lawrence Kushner Reform Neo-Kabbalah Influence on modern and postmodern Jewish philosophy: Jewish existentialism Postmodern Jewish philosophy[9] Independent scholarship: Sanford Drob - The New Kabbalah[10] |
| Zionist mysticism | c.1910s CE-today | Teachings and influence of Rav Kook poetic mystic. Unity of religion and secularism, halakha and aggadah, activism and quietism: Abraham Isaac Kook Chief Rabbi Mandate Palestine Atchalta De'Geulah religious Zionism |
| Academic study of Jewish mysticism | c.1920s CE-today | Critical-historical study of Jewish mystical texts began in 1800s, but Gershom Scholem's school in the mid-1900s founded the methodological disciple in academia, returning mysticism to a central position in Jewish historiography and Jewish studies departments. Select historian examples: First generation: Gershom Scholem discipline founder Hebrew University Alexander Altmann American initiator Second generation: Moshe Idel Hebrew University revisionism Joseph Dan Hebrew University Scholem chair |