Egyptian Mythology
Many books have been written on religion in
ancient Egypt. This brief overview is meant only to explain some of the basic concepts and to introduce some of the gods. Religion in
ancient Egypt was not unlike modern times. Today, not everyone believes in the same way, or of the same god. Egypt was no different. Individual kings worshipped their own gods, as did the workers, priests, merchants and peasants.
Pre-dynastic Egypt had formulated the ideas and beliefs of a "greater being", which was expressed in pictures, but some scholars suggest that "writing" was invented in order to communicate spiritual thoughts to the masses. Now the pictures had ideas, and took on human traits. The gods lived, died, hunted, went into battle, gave birth, ate, drank, and had human emotions. The gods reigns overlapped, and, in some instances, merged. Their was no organized hierarchy structure of their reign. The dominance of the gods depended on the beliefs of the reigning king. Their area of dominance depended on where the king wanted his capital. Likewise, the myths changed with the location of the gods, as did their names. Names in ancient Egypt were very mystic and powerful. It was thought that if you inscribed your enemies' name on something, then broke it, that enemy would either be afflicted, or possibly die. If you knew a name you had power. In the same respect, using a name could be beneficial. Each god had five names, and each was associated with an element, such as air, with celestial bodies, or were a descriptive statement about the god, such as strong, virile or majestic.
The creator of all things was either
Re,
Amun,
Ptah,
Khnum or
Aten, depending on which version of the myth was currently in use. The heavens were represented by
Hathor,
Bat, and
Horus.
Osiris was an earth god as was
Ptah. The annual flooding of the
Nile was
Hapi. Storms, evil and confusion were
Seth. His counterpart was
Ma'at, who represented balance, justice and truth. The moon was
Thoth and
Khonsu.
Re, the sun god, took on many forms, and transcended most of the borders that contained the other gods. The actual shape of the sun, the disk (or, aten), was deified into another god,
Aten.
As stated earlier, certain gods were worshipped in different areas. Local cities or villages, known as nomes, often had unique gods that were known only to that region. On occasion, these gods attained country -wide recognition and became the myths and legends that were passed on from century to century. Below is a listing of the main gods and their primary place of worship.
Amaunet - A female counterpart to
Amon and one of the primordial gods of the Hermopolitian Ogdoad (group of eight gods). She was also worshipped at
Thebes along with
Amon and
Mut.
Amon - Usually associated with the wind, or things hidden, and was also of the Hermopolitian Ogdoad. At
Thebes he became
Amon-Re, king of the gods. He was part of the
Theban Triad, along with
Mut and
Khonsu.
Antaios - He was originally a double god, "the two falcons", that was later joined to create one, probably that of
Horus.
Atum - A primordial god that was represented in the form of a human and a serpent. He was the supreme god in the Heliopolitan Ennead (group of nine
gods) and formed with Re to create
Re-Atum.
Hathor - The goddess of love, dance and alcohol was depicted as a cow. At
Thebes she was also the goddess of the dead. She was worshipped at
Dendera as the consort of
Horus and
Edfu, and was associated with
Isis at Byblos.
Horus - The earliest royal god was the shape of a falcon, with the sun and moon as his eyes. The sky-god was the ruler of the day. The many forms of Horus are; Re-Harakhti, Harsiesis, Haroeris, Harendotes, Khenti-irti, Khentekhtay (the crocodile-god), and Harmakhis, which is
Horus on the horizons, in which the
Sphinx of
Giza is considered to be his aspect.
Khonsu - the moon god was the son of
Amon and
Mut. The main temple at
Karnak is dedicated to him.
Mut - Worshipped at
Thebes, she was a consort of
Amon and part of the Theban Triad (group of three gods).
Nut - Mother of the sun, moon and heavenly bodies.
Osiris - He is regarded as the dead king that watches over the nether world and is rejuvenated in his son
Horus. As the symbol of eternal life he was worshipped at
Abydos and
Philae.
Serapis - He was mainly worshipped in
Alexandria and was later worshipped by the Greeks as Zeus. He was never fully accepted by the Egyptians in the
Ptolemaic period.
Sekhmet - She was part of the Memphite Triad with
Ptah and Nefertem. She was the mistress of war and sickness.
Seth - The son of Geb and
Nut in the Heliopolitan Ennead was in the form of an animal that has no zoological equivalent. This powerful god was regarded as god of the desert, making him a god of foreign lands.
Shu - He was an ancient cosmic power and was regarded as the god of the air and the bearer of heaven.
Sobek - He was a crocodile god and was worshipped at the Faiyum and Ombos. During the middle Kingdom he coalesced with
Re, Sobek-Re, and was worshipped as primordial deity and creator-god.
Thoth - He was worshipped as a baboon in Hermopolis. He was the god of sacred writings and wisdom.
The kings of
ancient Egypt were an integral part of religion. They formed a bridge over the chasm dividing the people and the gods. In
pre-dynastic times the kings were considered to be
gods. In later times, around the third dynasty, the kings became "transformed into"
gods. This was a crucial part of the governing of the people. The heirs to the throne were not kept out of public display. At a young age they were known to many, and were known as children, not future gods. A king may have had many heirs and may not have known who would assume the throne until a much later time. In order for the people , (and the future king), to accept the transformation, certain procedures had to be worked out. This dilemma was beautifully solved by the ritual that merged the king with the god. Belief was that all future kings had two aspects of his being, his physical being and his "
ka." The
ka was his spiritual counterpart that was part of the king at birth and remained with him throughout his life. Before assuming the throne a ritual was performed that united the king's ka and his person. The king and his priests would enter a temple, perform the ritual, and emerge as a god. All of the people would wait outside to witness the miracle of the transformation when the king re-emerged from the temple. In this way was the new king accepted as a god and his word was accepted as law.
Concerning religious matters, directly under the king were the priests. Their duty was to take care of the images of the gods. They also prepared the statues, or images, for the religious festivals. It was the priests role to read the scrolls before religious events. In later dynasties the priests were the voices of the
oracles. Special compartments, called priest holes, were strategically placed inside the temple. The priests were able to speak from these holes unseen by the person asking questions or favors of the gods.
Oracles were considered the pinnacle of the decision of
the gods. The priests were in charge of the temple riches and granaries. They were on a rotation schedule and might work officially one week out of the month. Their laboratories were in the temples, where they prepared incense and healing potions. What we think of as wizards originated with the priests. Shrouded in mystery, they were seldom seen by the common people unless they were reading magical texts or performing religious rituals. Inside the temple sanctuaries they were seen only by the king.. During the
21st Dynasty tomb robbing was systematically done by the priests themselves. Throughout history tomb robbing had been a problem, but had generally been done by common thieves. The priests claimed that by removing the bodies, and stripping off all of the precious metals, that they were, in fact, saving the desecration of the bodies by the common thieves. Of course the priests re-wrapped the bodies and buried them in different tombs to help protect the corpses. Some of the stolen gold and silver went into the temple treasuries, but a large portion of it went to the purchase of wood and iron, resources that were not native to Egypt and were most costly. Thirdly, some of the riches went into the current kings' tomb, making the robberies sanctified by the throne.
The
ancient Egyptians were extremely devout in their beliefs. They were dedicated to their gods and worshipped daily in many different ways. Their way of life revolved around these beliefs. They had a strong sense of justice and endeavored to do that which was right. Just like our society today, the common people abhorred adultery, stealing, murder and lying. They were a highly sophisticated society with values and morals not unlike our own.
Magic was commonplace for them as is demonstrated by the wearing of amulets to ward off evil. Magical texts were written in tombs to protect against would-be robbers. Many spells against snakebite have been discovered. Magical spells, rituals and concoctions were used to treat the sick or injured. If the magic did not work it was considered a will of the god, and not a failure of the
magic. The peoples calm acceptance of the strange and unusual allowed them to reconcile themselves to either natural phenomena or to those things unseen. Every occurrence had spiritual meaning and had a unique god assigned to the act.
In the
1st dynasty (2950 - 3110 B.C.E.)
Menes, the king who is considered by many to be
Ay or
Narmer, united upper and lower Egypt. He created his capital at
Memphis and dedicated a temple to the god
Ptah. Existing beliefs at that time were revised to explain these events, and almost all other myths of gods came from this event. Over a period of time all of the surrounding local gods were brought into this scheme, creating a sort of order of the hierarchy of the gods. All of the gods were included in one story or another, so no one was offended. This composition of the gods was like laying bricks for a building and, in essence, created the foundation for history's longest lived civilization.
THE TRIAD OF THEBES
To understand the
Myth of Creation, one must first understand that it is a complicated story. Four "cosmologies," or theories about creation are involved, each developing over different periods in
ancient Egypt. There are some common elements to each theory. For example, each theory holds that in the beginning, only a primordial, stagnant ocean called
Nu existed. In addition, the four theories agree that out of
Nu, rose the primeval hill. Each cosmology believed it was their temple that stood on this hill. The first
step-pyramids are no doubt symbolic of this mound. All cosmologies share the belief that creation was a slow process, not catastrophic. Finally, they also all agree that there was a "First Time," or a time period when the gods actually lived on earth.
With this foundation, the Heliopolitan cosmogony develops the myth further. The first event was the creation of
Atum, the god of
Heliopolis. There is dispute over whether he created himself, or was the son of
Nu. Some texts say he first appeared over the hill, others say he was, himself, the hill. Eventually,
Atum became associated with
Ra, the sun-god. Ra-Atum at this point is said to be the coming of the light to disperse the darkness of
Nu. Ra-Atum is symbolized by the Phoenix in this context. His next task was to create other gods. He did this by masturbation, not having a mate. This was not offensive to
ancient Egyptians, but in fact intensified his power in their minds.
Ra-Atum gave birth to twins.
Shu, his son and god of the air, was spit out, and his daughter,
Tefnut, goddess of world order was vomited out by Ra-Atum. The Twins were raised by
Nu and supervised by Ra-Atum's eye. The story of Ra-Atums eye will be told later.
Shu and
Tefnut gave birth to Geb, god of the earth, and his wife and sister,
Nut, goddess of the sky. Geb and
Nut, in turn, were the parents of
Isis,
Osiris, Nephthys, and
Set. These four gods, especially
Osiris play a major role in later myths.
Horus, another god was the son of
Isis and
Osiris. These five younger gods and goddesses may have been incorporated by the priests of
Heliopolis. Whatever the case, this "Ennead," or grouping of gods, were very much a part of tradition during this time.
From here, the order of dominance or precedence becomes contradictory. Some text place
Horus in a very high position, others give the right to
Nut. Still others claim that
Atum placed Geb over the Ennead, which included himself. The priests during this period believed themselves to represent Geb and
Nut, not
Atum. Eventually, it is Ra, the sun-god, who is considered supreme. However, Osiris later assumes this role. All of this will be discussed later.
Later, in 3100 B.C., Upper and Lower Egypt were joined and the capital became
Memphis. This began a new theory of creation.
Ptah, the high god of
Memphis was deemed creator. At some point
Ptah was even declared to be
Nu (thus placed above
Atum, high god of
Heliopolis). The Ennead of
Heliopolis was said to be merely a manifestation of
Ptah. This displacement of Heliopolitan cosmogony was necessary to establish and maintain the Memphite superiority.
Yet another cosmogony existed which was quite different from that of
Heliopolis and
Memphis. This was in a city in Upper Egypt called Hermopolis. It was said that this theory came before any other. Instead of an Ennead, Hermopolitans had a group of eight gods called an Ogdoad. This group consisted of Nun and Naunet, Huh and Hauhet, Kuk and Kauket, and
Amon and
Amaunet. According to this theory, these eight gods were responsible for creating the world. After this was done, the eight ruled the world during a time called the Golden Age. When they died, they went to the underworld, from where they still had power to make the
Nile flow and the sun to rise. Nun and Naunet symbolize water, Huh and Hauhet represent "unendingness," Kuk and Kauket signify darkness, and
Amonand
Amaunet symbolize the air.
Finally, in
Thebes during the New Kingdom time from 1546-1085 B.C., a new cosmogony arose. At this time, all the other theories were widely accepted; therefore, it was essential that the Thebans incorporate the main features of these theories into their own. The chief god of
Thebes was
Amon, who was already associated with the air. This made it a simple task to also instill in
Amon the power of the "supreme and invisible creator (Ames, 1965)." It was said that he created himself, having no father or mother, and was born in secret. Thebans claimed their city was the first city, and that all other cities were modeled after it. All of the cosmogonies claimed this. Thebans claimed that
Thebes was the Eye of Ra, son of
Amon. Going beyond what had been done in the past, Thebans claimed that entire cosmogonies were merely aspects of
Amon; merely forms of him.
It is important to mention at this point that each translation of ancient Egyptian text renders its own perspective on what is being said. There are many inconsistencies in each account. Therefor, it is a very complicated and difficult task to summarize the
myth of creation, or any myth, for that matter. From source to source, the names of the gods differ; even spellings differ. This site attempts to give a brief outline or a basic knowledge of Egyptian mythology. With this in mind, we continue with a few myths related to the
creation myth.
The eye of Ra-Atum, mentioned above, is the mythological symbol for the sun. At one point,
Shu and
Tefnut, twin children of Ra-Atum, were separated from him. He sent his eye to find them. While the eye was searching, Ra-Atum replaced the eye with another. When the eye returned with
Shu and
Tefnut, Ra-Atum wept with joy, and the tears created humankind. However, the eye was enraged at having been replaced. Ra-Atum placed the eye on his forehead so that the eye could rule the world; thus becoming associated with the sun. The second eye is associated with the moon. Another mythological symbol associated with the
Creation Myth is the Phoenix. The Phoenix was said to travel from Arabia to
Heliopolis once every five hundred years. The cycles of time were said to be set by the Phoenix, also known as the
Benu bird, and the temple of the Phoenix became the "centre of calendrical regulation (Clark, 1960)." During the Middle Kingdom, it became the soul of
Osiris and it was also at this time that it became associated with the planet Venus, the morning star, which was said to be the suns guide. All of the above representations were minor associations, however. The Phoenixs main role was as the one who created himself, thus symbolizing Ra-Atum.
Common to all cosmogonies of creation is the temple. Each theory places its temple on the hill rising up from
Nu. Myths concerning the form, origin and significance are mostly Memphite in origin; myths about the daily temple rituals are primarily Heliopolitan in nature. One such temple, and possibly the earliest described in myth, was that of the Falcon, associated with the god
Horus who was the hunters god, maybe a war god, and later, a sky god. Thus, the Falcon was a symbol of majesty and power, and the model for the pharaohs. According to myth, this temples erection was a natural event and signified the final event in the process of creation. It started out as a shelter for the Falcons perch and this portion remained the most sacred place in the temple. The detail in which the temple is described exemplifies the high level of development that was reached even before historic times. Many temples like this were constructed in predynastic Egypt, most likely.
The temple of the sun-god was the second type of temple built. This began as one rectangular structure or sanctuary. Other chambers were added, and a wall surrounded the structure. Some research shows that there was another type of temple of the sun-god that consisted of one sanctuary only. This temple signifies the beginning of the history of the actual temple physically built in Egypt.
Myth has it that the above temples descended from one primeval temple that was built to shelter the successor of the creator. This temple is said to have stood on the hill rising up from
Nu, as did every other temple described in the various cosmogonies. However, this was a living temple, the body of the god of the temple, who took his physical form using the temple.
Featured Egyptian Mythology God: Mother of Gods (
Andjety )
Delta Cycle
As mentioned before, there was a mythological period called the "First Time." This was an era where the gods were said to roam and rule the world. Nu, Atum, Ra, Shu and Tefnut, Geb and Nut, Osiris, and many other gods were among the population. Set, son of Geb and Nut, was also present. It is said that he was the spirit of evil. Even his birth was violent, as he tore himself from his mothers womb. He gained power by murdering his brother Osiris and was a terrifying ruler for a period of time. Many of the other gods chose to seek safety in the bodies of various animals during this time.
This begins what is called the Delta Cycle myth. Sets sister, Isis was enslaved by Set after her brother and husband, Osiriss death (which is a topic itself and will be discussed shortly). Isis managed to escape and was forced to hide in the swamp of the Delta, for she was carrying a child, Horus, destined to grow up and defeat Set; thus avenging his fathers death. As an infant, Horus was watched over by various gods and marsh-nymphs in a place in the swamp called Chemmis. Among these was Nephthys, the sister and wife of Set-as she had left her husband due to his cruelty. Snakes were his biggest source of danger, as they were Set in disguise. At one point, Horus was bitten and poisoned. He was saved by the gods because the power of the "high god" could protect him from Set and his followers. It is interesting to note here that this power was said not to extend over natural hazards. Thus, if it had been simply a poisonous snake bite, Horus may have died, but because it was Sets evil in disguise, the gods were able to cure Horus.
Once Horus was grown, he came out of the Delta to claim his right to his fathers "office." This myth, called the Great Quarrel by some, was not a serious one. The story is mostly dialogue. It was created for entertainment; therefor, it is shallow and without real meaning. Nevertheless, it is interesting, and worth mentioning here.
The counsel of the gods was considering giving the office to Set, because he was the larger and stronger of the two. After much discussion and consulting (supposedly, the discussion went on more that eighty years), it was decided to give the crown to Horus. Set became enraged and challenged Horus to a battle in the sea, both of them taking the form of hippopotamuses. Horus accepted. His mother, Isis tried to help him, but ended up not really doing so at all, but rather, made it worse. First, she harpooned him accidentally and released him. Then she harpooned Set, but released him as well because Set was able to persuade her to do so. This angered Horus so much that he came up from the water and cut off his mothers head. He took the head to the mountains to hide from the punishment he had just earned. He hid under a tree in an oasis and the company of gods looking for him could not find him.
Set was able to find Horus, however. He tore out Horuss eyes and planted them the ground, where they bloomed into lotus flowers. Set denied being able to find Horus to the counsel, but another god, Hanthor, found Horus again, restored his eyes, then brought him to the counsel. A truce was called and Set and Horus went off to rest together.
This point in the story is a good example of how this myth was not to be taken seriously. The material is vulgar in this portion. In not so many words, Set violated Horus that night. Horus ran to his mother (who obviously did not die from decapitation) with Sets semen (seed) on his hand. Isis cut off Horuss contaminated hand, threw the hand in the ditch, and put some of Horuss semen on Sets garden. Set became pregnant when he ate from the garden.
Obviously, it was not a moral crime to violate homosexually as it was to be violated homosexually, because Set and Horus went before the counsel and Set declared that Horus was unfit for the crown because he allowed Set to "treat" him homosexually. Horus claimed this was untrue and that the gods should call the "seed" of each to see who had "treated" whom. The gods did so. Sets seed answered from the ditch, while Horuss answered from Set. The gods declared Horus right. However, once again, Set challenged Horus to a contest. This time, it was a boat race in boats made of stone. Horus built his in the night, when no one could see. He made his of wood, but covered it with gypsum, making it look like stone. Set saw the boat, and made his of stone, thinking Horuss was also. The next day, Sets boat sank immediately, of course. He was enraged and tried to kill Horus, but the gods intervened.
After more discussion and consulting, Set finally agrees to let law rule over brute force and resigns. Horus was given the crown, and in compensation, Set was made god of storms. His main duty was to fend off the serpent dragon of darkness, Apopis, as he tried to overcome Osiriss divine barge at sunrise and sunset.
Great Quarrel
Once Horus was grown, he came out of the Delta to claim his right to his fathers "office." This myth, called the Great Quarrel by some, was not a serious one. The story is mostly dialogue. It was created for entertainment; therefor, it is shallow and without real meaning. Nevertheless, it is interesting, and worth mentioning here.
The counsel of the gods was considering giving the office to Set, because he was the larger and stronger of the two. After much discussion and consulting (supposedly, the discussion went on more that eighty years), it was decided to give the crown to Horus. Set became enraged and challenged Horus to a battle in the sea, both of them taking the form of hippopotamuses. Horus accepted. His mother, Isis tried to help him, but ended up not really doing so at all, but rather, made it worse. First, she harpooned him accidentally and released him. Then she harpooned Set, but released him as well because Set was able to persuade her to do so. This angered Horus so much that he came up from the water and cut off his mothers head. He took the head to the mountains to hide from the punishment he had just earned. He hid under a tree in an oasis and the company of gods looking for him could not find him.
Set was able to find Horus, however. He tore out Horuss eyes and planted them the ground, where they bloomed into lotus flowers. Set denied being able to find Horus to the counsel, but another god, Hanthor, found Horus again, restored his eyes, then brought him to the counsel. A truce was called and Set and Horus went off to rest together.
This point in the story is a good example of how this myth was not to be taken seriously. The material is vulgar in this portion. In not so many words, Set violated Horus that night. Horus ran to his mother (who obviously did not die from decapitation) with Sets semen (seed) on his hand. Isis cut off Horuss contaminated hand, threw the hand in the ditch, and put some of Horuss semen on Sets garden. Set became pregnant when he ate from the garden.
Obviously, it was not a moral crime to violate homosexually as it was to be violated homosexually, because Set and Horus went before the counsel and Set declared that Horus was unfit for the crown because he allowed Set to "treat" him homosexually. Horus claimed this was untrue and that the gods should call the "seed" of each to see who had "treated" whom. The gods did so. Sets seed answered from the ditch, while Horuss answered from Set. The gods declared Horus right. However, once again, Set challenged Horus to a contest. This time, it was a boat race in boats made of stone. Horus built his in the night, when no one could see. He made his of wood, but covered it with gypsum, making it look like stone. Set saw the boat, and made his of stone, thinking Horuss was also. The next day, Sets boat sank immediately, of course. He was enraged and tried to kill Horus, but the gods intervened.
After more discussion and consulting, Set finally agrees to let law rule over brute force and resigns. Horus was given the crown, and in compensation, Set was made god of storms. His main duty was to fend off the serpent dragon of darkness, Apopis, as he tried to overcome Osiriss divine barge at sunrise and sunset.
This leads us to the myth of Set and Apopis. The tone of this myth was the same as that of the Great Quarrel; however, it was not told in direct speech, but was an actual dramatic piece. During a confrontation with Set, Apopis insulted and embarrassed Set by mentioning Sets loss of his testicles during battle with Horus. This enraged Set and he wanted to kill the serpent, but was not brave enough to do so face to face. He tricked Apopis into turning his head, then Set cut it off and chopped it up. He was disgraced by this and driven away from the company of the other gods.
Birth & Flight of Horus
Then there is the myth sometimes called the Birth and Flight of Horus. This tale, found in the Coffin Texts, is a combination of two stories. The first is the birth of Horus, and the second is a very old and fragmented myth that the sun burst out of an egg laid by a primeval being or goose floating on the primordial waters before creation. The Birth and Flight of Horus begins just after Osiriss death. The tone is much more serious than that of the Delta Cycle or the Great Quarrel.
The world was being terrorized by Set. Isis dreamed that she would have a son who would avenge her husbands death and asked Atum if this son would be allowed a seat on the sun boat. However, just before the birth, Isis realized that she would be giving birth to a Falcon, not a child. Upon the birth, Atum saluted Horus and told him that he would give him his name after Horus flew to the horizon. While the company was discussing other matters, such as Horuss seat on the boat, Horus flew up on his own, higher than even the "old" gods who inhabited the constellations. Horus proclaimed to the gods below that he would, indeed, avenge his fathers death.
This myth, as mentioned before, combines two others together. According to some sources, there were actually two gods named Horus. The first, the original Falcon, flew up at the beginning of time upon his birth. The second, son of Isis, was forced to grow up in secret for fear of Set, as described in the Delta Cycle myth. The myth of the Birth and Flight of Horus brings these two gods into one.
Osiris has been mentioned many times, but not in any detail until now. Osiris played a very important role in ancient Egypt and this carried over into the rituals and beliefs of Egyptians much later, as well. It was because of the legend of Osiris that Egyptians believed they had the right to be transformed and to live in the afterlife. The myth of Osiris is like every other Egyptian myth: the story has changed with every political change of power.
Osiris was the son of Geb and Nut and was born in Thebes in Upper Egypt. Upon his birth, his grandfather, Ra, pronounced him heir to his throne, and when Geb retired, Osiris assumed this role and took his sister, Isis, as queen. His first deed was to abolish cannibalism and teach the arts of agriculture. He built the first temples and laid down fair laws for his people. He was given another name at this point, Onnophris, meaning the "good one." In his role as the fourth divine pharaoh, this was Osiriss name.
He left Isis to rule Egypt when he decided to spread his rule around the world. He returned only after civilizing the entire earth. He found that Isis ruled wisely and his kingdom was still in perfect order. However, it was at this point that his brother, Set, began plotting against him. There are many stories of how Osiris was killed. The most common is that Set held an extravagant banquet and invited Osiris. After the festivities were over, Set produced a magnificent coffin and offered it as a gift to whomever it fitted best. Of course, it had been built for Osiriss form and when he got in it, Set shut the lid and threw it in the Nile river.
Set took Osiriss place as king while the grieving Isis searched for Osiriss remains. She found the body in a far away place called Byblos, brought it back to Egypt, and hid it in the marsh. Set found it, unfortunately, and tore the body in pieces, throwing them again into the river. Isis collected all the pieces except the genitals, which had been eaten by fish. She bandaged the body together again. This was the first mummy. This mummy then transformed an akh, and this form of Osiris traveled to the underworld to become king over and judge of the dead.
At this point, it is important to understand what the Egyptians believed about the spirit of beings. There were three forms of spirits to each being: the akh, ba, and ka. As mentioned above, the akh was the name given to the form that the dead existed in. This form was immortal and unchanging. It is this form that traveled to the underworld. The ba, represented as a human headed bird, was the form released at death. It is often called the soul, incorrectly. It was actually considered a beings personality or character. Finally, the ka was the form considered to be the double of a being, both spiritually and physically. The ka was created at birth by the god Khnum on his potters wheel. The ka could be released in dreams while a being was alive, but was finally released at death. It is symbolized by a pair of upraised arms. At ones death, the ka and the ba traveled to join each other in the next world. Once this was done, the being could become an akh, and take the form of the dead that existed among the gods.
The Osiris Cult myths had its beginnings in Lower Egypt in the Delta region. Some historians believe that Osiris was an actual king of Egypt and this may be true; however, for our purposes, he was a god, though many kings later associated themselves with him. In the beginning, Osiris was associated mostly with agriculture. This cult spread rapidly into Upper Egypt, and soon Osiris became identified with the funeral god, Abydos, Khenti-Amentiu, who was symbolized by the wolf. Osiris became known as Osiris Khenti-Amentiu, "Lord of the Westerners," as the West was the home of the dead. As the cult spread and gained acceptance, Osiris also became identified with the necropolis god of Giza, near Memphis. Seker, as the god was called, was a burial ground god.
The spread of the cult did not find much opposition due to the fact that, in the beginning, Osiris did not threaten the more supreme gods of the time. Ra remained the supreme god in the solar religion, while Osiris, Isis, and Horus were incorporated into his family. In the early stages, Ra even remained the most important figure in the underworld as well. It was said that Ra, each night, traveled through the underworld in the form of Auf, the dead sun. His journey was sometimes threatened by the evil souls, and in the beginning, Osiris was sometimes one of these. Eventually, Osiris rose to more prominent standing, claiming the title, King over the Dead. Even in primitive times, Egyptians believed that in order for the soul to survive death, the body had to be preserved. Therefore, from the start of the Osiris legend being incorporated into the solar religion, embalming was practiced. This will lead us to the myths surrounding the mummy, but first, there is still more to discuss about the Osiris cult.
The rituals of burial and passage into the afterlife were only used for the pharaohs until around the sixth dynasty. At this point, rights were extended to the pharaohs immediate family and the aristocracy. When this dynasty fell around 2250 B.C., this practice was used more and more by the common people as well. Until the Osiris myth came along, there was only the sun-god myth for burial and passage. This was not suited for the common person, as they did not even have access to the inner sanctuaries of Ras temples. The cult of the sun-god explained present day politics and was tied up in laws of ownership and inheritance of power and property. The Osiris cult appealed to the common mans emotions and provided a way for him to believe that he, too, could have eternal life.
As the cult spread, Osiris took over more and more of Ras functions. Osiris became associated again with agriculture, as was Ra before Ra became so much a puppet of politics. Osiris eventually absorbed the power of Ra over the Nile, the floods, the vegetation. This was Osiris in his role a symbol for resurrection. Just as he was the god of the afterlife, so was he the god over the regeneration of non-human life on earth.
Osiris was not a frightening god to the people of Ancient Egypt, though they still felt a need to pacify him. He was their means to eternal life, and this was achieved by copying the exact forms and rituals of his embalming. From the time of death, The deceaseds name was always prefaced with Osiris, much as we use the words, "the late" in modern times. The entire mummification process took about seventy days and was a very degrading one, so as to put the deceased through the same trauma as Osiris himself had to endure. The body was taken away from the home to "the place of purification."
First the body was washed with water from the Nile, then the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines were removed. These were placed in four vessels called Canopic jars. The void in the body was filled with balls of linen, as was the head after the brain was removed through the nostrils. The purpose of the linen stuffing was to preserve the features because if they disintegrated, then the personality would also. The heart was left in the body because it was the seat of intelligence. The body was then soaked in salt, then with various oils and resins. Various amulets were then placed on the body, the most important being the scarab, symbol of renewed life, which was placed over the heart. Finally, the body was wrapped in linen bandages and placed in the coffin. All of these materials used were said to have grown from the tears that the gods shed when Osiris died.
Each person involved with the burial process paralleled the characters in the original embalming of Osiris. The embalmers represented the gods who helped Isis embalm Osiris. Female mourners, usually the wife and another female relative, symbolized Isis and Nephthys, and kept watch over the body until the actual burial. A great procession followed with the coffin being pulled in a boat (representing the great barge) by men and oxen. The female mourners were positioned at either end of the coffin with the male mourners following behind. The Canopic jars were next, with the rest of the female mourners, some professional mourners who would be chanting, behind them. The priests took part in this procession as well. Behind, the entire procession was brought up by the servants carrying everything the deceased was supposed to need for the next world.
The burial ground was usually on the western bank of the Nile; therefore, the entire procession would have to cross the river. Dancers and musicians joined the procession at the tomb, where the mummy was raised upright and the ceremony of the "Opening of the Mouth" took place. This ceremony was symbolic of when Horus went to Osiris to announce his victory over Set, to present the symbol of that victory, the eye which Set had taken during their battles, and to open his fathers mouth, thus wakening him from his unconsciousness. At this point, the resurrection of the soul was complete. In the actual ceremony, this was considered to be the way for the rebirth of the soul.
Finally, the mummy was replaced in the coffin, which was usually made from stone. Sometimes there were three or more coffins in which the mummy was placed -- the better to withstand the decay. Assuming all of the rituals were performed correctly, the deceased would make it at least as far as the Hall of Judgment. From there, he would be responsible for himself. He would be provided one last bit of help -- the book of the dead -- which, among other purposes, would be of assistance in talking to the judges.
Osiris, as mentioned earlier, was eventually considered to be the judge of the dead. Rights to the afterlife had to be earned by righteousness, and Osiris was the judge of this. Osiris was imagined sitting on a throne in the Hall of Judgment called the "Hall of the Two Truths." The throne sat at the top of a flight of steps representing the primeval hill where Ra had been born and started creation. This hill over time had come to represent the resurrection in the afterlife. This is another example of how Osiris absorbed so much of the power of Ra. Osiriss wife and sister, Isis was in attendance, as well as his other sister Nephthys, and his four sons, Imset, Hapy, Duamutef, and Qebehsenuf. There were forty-two judges, representing the forty-two provinces of Upper and Lower Egypt, and each judge was responsible for judging a particular aspect of conscience. Of these, there were nine great judges, and Ra was among these, as was his other form, Atum, and Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Isis, Nephthys, Horus, and Hathor.
Once the deceased had safely crossed over from the land of the living to that of the dead, he was immediately taken to the hall. This passage was considered to be the most terrifying part, and it was thought that safety could be enhanced with talismans placed on the mummy and passwords written on the indispensable Book of the Dead and sent with the deceased.
There were, it was believed, two parts to the hearing that took place next. The first was the "negative confession." The deceased addressed the gods and proclaimed himself to be sin free. (It was possible to deceive the gods.) Some say that simply saying one was pure, made one pure, like a magic spell. The second part of the hearing resulted from later beliefs that the soul really did need to be pure. This phase was presided over by Throth, god of wisdom and reason. Here, the heart of the deceased is weighed against an ostrich feather, symbol of Mayet, god of truth and justice. It is not known whether the heart of an unpure person weighed more or less than the feather, only that a pure heart weighed the same. If the heart weighed the same, the nine great judges confirmed the decision that the deceased was worthy. If not, it was thought, the deceased was thrown to Amemait the devourer, who was a hybrid monster -- part lion, part hippopotamus, part crocodile.
Once deemed worthy, the deceased was dressed in the form of Osiris and brought before the king of the dead. Osiris announced the verdict and invited the deceased to roam freely with the other gods. At this point, the deceased lived in eternal happiness, though sometimes he might be called upon to do some repair work. For this labor, he was equipped during his burial with little statuettes called "Shabtis," who would do this work for him.
The Osiris cult transformed Egyptian religion greatly. Whereas before, religion consisted of warding off evil intentions of various gods, the Osiris cult created a sort of ethic in Egyptian life. An individual had to follow a moral code to have the promise of eternal life. This promise was offered to every man, and this explains the rapid growth of the cult. The sun-god cult remained in existence until early in the forth century, B.C.; however, by the thirty-second dynasty, under Ptolemy, it is no longer mentioned.
As new dynasties ruled Egypt, and foreign gods made their mark on society, Osiriss images and symbolisms changed as well. As has been the case with all Egyptian myth, this was inevitable.
As promised earlier, myths surrounding the mummies will be discussed now. The most obvious would be the myth about the "curse of the pharaohs." Actually, there never was such a curse in Egypt. It was the Arabs that came up with it. They were sure that the Egyptians were magical people, what with all the treasures of pure gold and the like. The Arabs also believed that people capable of this magic would not just passively allow it to be taken from their tombs. Thus, in early Arabs texts there are writings of mummies coming back to life and being even more threatening than a living foe due to the mummies lack of fear.
These Arab myths were compounded when the tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered. This was a bad scene politically and well covered by the press, who were the main culprits in distorting and exaggerating the myth. Many tragedies happened to people who had contact with Egyptian artifacts, and most blamed the curse, even when the tragedy happened years and years later. These tragedies range from broken legs, failed marriages, to death. Not one tragedy has been found that can not be explained rationally.
In reality, the inscriptions in the tombs of the Pharaohs welcomes anyone into the tombs with the proper intentions. The immortality of the pharaoh depended on the remembrance of his name and the continual funeral offerings. People had to enter the tomb to perform such duties. Even in rare inscriptions aimed at those coming in to the tombs for less than moral reasons, the threat was not that the mummy would defend the treasures, but that the gods would be the judge of that persons soul. Therefore, as disappointing as it may be, there was no curse. For all the hype about the curse following the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun, there was never found even a threat on the walls of that tomb.
Finally, myths concerning the protection of various gods over particular kingdoms and pharaohs were a very important aspect of Ancient Egypt. This is by no means a complete listing of all the gods. Nekhebet, the goddess of childbirth was said to watch over Upper Egypt. She is often seen suckling the royal children and sometimes even the pharaoh himself. Buto was the protector of Lower Egypt, and some versions of the Delta Myth claim that she allied herself with Isis to protect Horus during his infancy.
Mont, the Theban god of war, was considered protector there beginning in the Middle Kingdom, especially the Eleventh Dynasty. Originally, Mont was lord and master over a region for which Hermonthis was the capitol. Later, he was demoted by Amon, who became known as the king of the gods in this region, as is explained in the creation myth. Once ousted, Mont was still worshipped in Hermonthis and in Medamud, in the outskirts of Thebes.
Sebek, thought to be among the patrons of the Thirteenth Dynasty, was a crocodile god. Sebek was said to have crawled out of the primordial waters on the day of creation. He was especially worshipped in the Fayyum; however, due to his associations with Set, the crocodile -- symbol for Sebek -- was mercilessly hunted down and killed in other places in Egypt. It was told in some versions of the Osiris myth that Set had hidden in the body of a crocodile to escape punishment for his crime.
Sekhmet, a goddess of war and battle, is symbolized by a vicious lion. She was a ruthless protector of Ra, in fact, so much so, that she almost wiped out the entire human race when a revolt against Ra took place. She was the wife of Ptah, high god of Memphis, and mother to Nefertum. Neith was the protector of Sais, which became the capitol of Egypt around the middle of the seventh century B.C., during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. She was a war goddess as well as being skilled in the domestic arts.
Egypt: Upper Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic Religion and Rulers, A Feature Tour Egypt Story
Upper Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic Religion and Rulers
By Caroline Seawright
The Burial
The people who are believed to be the ancestors to the predynastic Egyptians were a people known as the Badarian people. They lived in Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile, near the village of Badari, south of Asiut. Archaeologists have found both a series of settlement sites as well as various cemeteries. They lived at about 4400 BC and may have even been as far back as 5000 BC.
Though they were a semi-nomadic people, they started to cultivate grain and domesticate their animals. They found the need for a series of small villages in the flat desert bordering on the fertile land created by the Nile, and the burial grounds were found on the outskirts of these villages. They even gave their cattle and sheep ceremonial burial!
The graves of the people were simple - the dead were laid to rest on their left sides facing the west, in a fetal position and wrapped in matting. They were buried with fine grave goods - beautiful ceramics, decorated plates, bowls and dishes. Cosmetic utensils including makeup palettes, ointment spoons, decorative combs and bracelets, necklaces and copper beads and pins. They also usually had an ivory or clay female figure (which may have been fertility doll or idol) placed in the grave with the deceased. Unfortunately many of the graves were robbed soon after burial.
This seems to point to a highly evolved funerary system - they dead were buried with their finest possessions, personal possessions and clothing for use in the next world.
The Amratians
Succeeding the Badari, the Naqada people took over. They were one of the most important prehistoric cultures in Upper Egypt, and their development can be traced to the founding of the Egyptian state.
The Amratian (Naqada I) started as a parallel culture to the Badari, but eventually superimposed itself on the other, and finally replaced it. These, though, were the race thought of as the first 'true Egyptians', and dominated between 4500-3100 BC.
Like the Badari, they lived in villages, and started the first real attempt at cultivating the fertile Nile valley and supplemented their diet by hunting for food. Each village had it's own animal deity which was identified with a clan ensign. From this came the different Egyptian nomes with their own local totems - the gods of the dynastic pantheon.
The artistic accomplishment of the people were given a chance to grow, and pottery decorated with animals, human figures hunting or worshiping and even papyrus bundle boats started appearing. So, too, did the female idol figures continue to grow - they appeared in greater numbers and in a wider variety, and bearded male figures started to appear on pendants and ivory sticks ("magic wands"). These last sets of human figures seems to have been of a magical or spiritual nature.
In the Amratian graves, the deceased were buried with statuettes to keep him or her company in the afterlife. These were the forerunners of ushabti figures found in Egyptian tombs. Along with these figured, the dead person was buried with food, weapons, amulets, ornaments and decorated vases and palettes.
The Gerzean
In the middle of the fourth millennium BC, the Naqada II period superceded the Naqada I. They had mastered the art of agriculture and the use of artificial irrigation, and no longer needed to hunt for their food. The people started live in towns, not just villages, creating areas of higher population density than ever before.
The Gerzean people continued to expand in the artistic area, creating new styles of pottery and more elegant artwork. They started to create a wide variety of animal-shaped palettes for mixing cosmetics, as well as a shield-shaped cosmetic pallet, the ancestor of the ceremonial palettes in early Dynastic Egypt. Metalworking increased - the Gerzean people made great use of copper knives. They also created their own cast-metal implements and weapons.
They traded with far distant peoples for copper and other goods (they traded much further than the previous two cultures) - silver, lapis lazuli, lead, cylinder seals were some goods traded for from Asia and Mesopotamia. Foreign influences through their trading began to show in their style of dress, ornaments and various implements. Radical changes in the design of knives, daggers and pottery were made by the Gerzeans.
They also introduced the images and totems of the falcon, symbol of the sun god Ra, and the cow, symbol of the love goddess
Hathor.
- There were also significant changes in the matter of burials. Whereas cemeteries that dated from an earlier period showed that the corpse was generally wrapped in some sort of covering and buried in a contracted position facing the west, those which were located in Gerzean deposits indicated a lack of regular orientation, a more elaborate form of grave, and evidences of ritual procedure at the time of burial in the form of deliberately shattered pottery.
There is evidence of an elite social class from the graves and grave goods found. The more elaborate funerary cult created larger, rectangular graves with walls lined with either masonry or wooden blanks, which could also hold grave goods. The differences in the lavish (or not) graves, with many or lesser goods, pointed to the distinction in classes in the Gerzean people.
In Nekhem (Hierakonpolis), the cult centre of Horus of Nekhem, there is a Naqada II palace and ritual precinct. This area was made of timber and matting, and can only be theoretically reconstructed from the positions of the postholes - some of which were big enough for entire tree trunks! The features of the complex were compared with the buildings of Djoser's pyramid complex, where such buildings were made in stone. It has a large oval courtyard, surrounded by various buildings, and is clearly the forerunner to the royal ritual precincts of the early Dynastic Period.
This, then, was the root of the Egyptian kingship system and the beginning of the unified state.
Predynastic Egypt
The Naqada III had many territorial divisions, known as nomes. They had their own sacred animal or plant that became the totem, fetish or emblem of that territory. The emblem was depicted on the pottery of that area. The nomes then resulted in two powerful states - Upper and Lower Egypt. It has been found that they ended up with twenty nomes in Lower Egypt and twenty-two in Upper Egypt! Each state had their own ruler.
There were thirteen or so rulers at Nekhem, of which only the last few have been identified (though they are by no means certain):
Horus "Crocodile"
Horus Hat-Hor
Horus Iry-Hor
Horus Ka
Horus "Scorpion"
Horus Narmer "Baleful Catfish"
The rulers who named themselves after animals, were probably attempting to identify themselves with the divinity found in these animals. The rulers became the personification of the named animal-god, as later on the pharaohs were known as the "Son of Ra". These rulers also wore the white crown of Upper Egypt and were depicted as superhuman figures, giants who towered above mortal men. They were depicted as being war-like, with
Scorpion's macehead hints at the nature of Upper Egyptian rulers.
In Lower Egypt, a more commercial system ran the state. The centres of wealth were ruled over by important families or groups in each town, rather than by a single hierarchy. Ma'adi, Buto and Tell Farkha were the larger towns of the state, with the capital probably at Buto. By the Naqada III period, Buto's pottery was 99% from Upper Egypt, and so was thought to have been "Naqada-ised" by that time.
The rulers of Lower Egypt, who wore the red crown, taken from the Palermo Stone may have been:
Ska 
H`yw 
-
Tshsh 
Nhb 
Wadjha 
Mch 
There is not much known about these rulers, other than their names. Some believe that there was never one ruler over Lower Egypt in predynastic times, because of a lack of evidence of these rulers.
Narmer (who some believe to also be King Scorpion because of lack of evidence of the other king, other than one macehead) managed to take over the state of Lower Egypt, by force according to decorated palettes and maceheads. The famous Narmer palette shows him on one side wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt, and the other shows him wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. It also shows the hawk emblem of Horus, the Upper Egyptian god of Nekhem, dominating the Lower Egypt personified papyrus marsh. From this, Narmer is believed to have unified Egypt.
Manetho attributes the unification of Egypt to Aha "Fighter" Menes. He has been listed as the first pharaoh of the 1st Dynasty, but Menes and Narmer may be on in the same man. Menes was from Thinis, in the south of Upper Egypt, but he built his capital at Memphis, according to Diodorus.
The Narmer palette was found in the temple at Nekhem where they had been dedicated to Horus, as were other expensive objects with royal imagery. These items were not for every day use - they were more than twice the size of normal items! There was a clear link between the ruler and religion as he was a central figure in religious art. Burial customs became even more stratified, and much more elaborate for the highest classes - for the elite, there were two places to be buried: Abydos in Upper Egypt, and Saqqara in Lower Egypt. Many nobles and rulers were buried in both places in the early Dynastic Period.
Religion
The religion of Neolithic and predynastic Egypt appears to have been animistic nature worship, with each village or town with its own spirit in the form of an animal, bird, reptile, tree, plant or object. The spirit was always in something that played a prominent part in the life of the people of that locality. The spirits fell into two general groups - that which was friendly and helpful, such as cattle, or that which was menacing and powerful such as the crocodile or snakes. In both cases, the favour of the spirit had to be solicited with a set formula of words and action, and they had to have houses built for them and offerings made to them.
As the spirits became gods, in each town or village, the deity had its own temple staffed by priests, who dealt with the deity's daily wants. In return for these services, the god was thought to protect its people, ensuring fertility and well-being. But if the needs weren't met, the deity might call down wrath on the community in the form of plague or famine or other such natural disasters.
The totemic origin of the Egyptian religion is that of great antiquity. From spirits worshiped through animals, plants and even mountains to being the standard of the town itself, then to being the god of the town. The standard of the nome clearly showed which deity protected the town. And, as the town gained prominence, so too did the town's standard.
The religion was interwoven into not only the ruling power, but into life itself. The deity of the town was who the people turned to, through the government, to prevent the everyday hazards of living - magic, spells, charms, folklore and amulets. They appealed to the deity for protection against hazards and to intercede on their behalf for anything from the Nile flooding to sowing and harvest to protection from poisonous animals to childbirth.
Horus and Nekhbet, the vulture goddess of Al Kab, came to represent Upper Egypt. In Lower Egypt, Set and Udjo, the cobra goddess of Buto, were worshiped. In later Egyptian history, the vulture and cobra were united in the royal diadem, to represent dominion over both lands. So when Nekhem became the most powerful town, Horus became the god par excellence. The rulers started to identify themselves as the living embodiment of the hawk god.
The growth of the Egyptian religion is one of the reasons why Egypt ended up with such a complex and polythestic religious system. When a town grew in prominence, so did the god. When the town was deserted, the god disappeared. Only a few of the many deities ended up in the Egyptian pantheon, and even then their popularity waxed and waned through the thousands of years of Egyptian history. Another reason for complexity was when people moved, their god did, too. This meant that at the new town, there was sometimes a battle between the old and new gods - but the Egyptian gods were easily merged, with other gods taking over that god's attributes and abilities! So it is that some of the ancient gods of Neolithic and Predynastic Egypt came to national prominence are considered to be some of the main gods in the Egyptian pantheon today: Amun of Thebes,
Ptah of Hikuptah (Memphis),
Horus (the Elder) of Nekhem, Set of Tukh (Ombos), Ra of Iunu (Heliopolis), Min of Gebtu (Koptos),
Hathor of Dendra and
Osiris of Abydos.
