The Sumerian King List

The Sumerian King List is an ancient manuscript originally recorded in the Sumerian language, listing kings of Sumer (ancient southern Iraq) from Sumerian and neighboring dynasties, their supposed reign lengths, and the locations of "official" kingship. Kingship was believed to have been handed down by the gods, and could be transferred from one city to another, reflecting perceived hegemony in the region.^[1] Throughout its Bronze Age existence, the document evolved into a political tool. Its final and single attested version, dating to the Middle Bronze Age, aimed to legitimize Isin's claims to hegemony when Isin was vying for dominance with Larsaand other neighboring city-states in southern Mesopotamia.^[1][2]

Composition[edit]

The list blends prehistorical, presumably mythical predynastic rulers enjoying implausibly lengthy reigns with later, more plausibly historical dynasties. Although the primal kings are historically unattested, this does not preclude their possible correspondence with historical rulers who were later mythicized. Some Assyriologists view the predynastic kings as a later fictional addition.^[1][3] Only one ruler listed is known to be female: Kug-Bau "the (female) tavern-keeper", who alone accounts for the Third Dynasty of Kish. The earliest listed ruler whose historicity has been archaeologically verified is Enmebaragesi of Kish, ca. 2600 BC. Reference to him and his successor, Aga of Kish in the Epic of Gilgamesh has led to speculation that Gilgamesh himself may have been a historical king of Uruk. Three dynasties are absent from the list: the Larsa dynasty, which vied for power with the (included) Isin dynasty during the Isin-Larsa period; and the two dynasties of Lagash, which respectively preceded and ensued the Akkadian Empire, when Lagash exercised considerable influence in the region. Lagash in particular is known directly from archaeological artifacts dating from ca. 2500 BC. The list is important to the chronology of the 3rd millennium BC. However, the fact that many of the dynasties listed reigned simultaneously from varying localities makes it difficult to reproduce a strict linear chronology.^[1]

Sources[edit]

The following extant ancient sources contain the Sumerian King List, or fragments:

• Apkullu-list (W.20030,7)
• Babyloniaca (Berossus)
• Dynastic Chronicle (ABC 18)^[4] including copies, K 11261+ and K 12054
• Kish Tablet (Scheil dynastic tablet)
• UCBC 9-1819 ("California Tablet")
• WB 62
• WB 444 (Weld-Blundell Prism) ^[5]

The last two sources (WB) are a part of the "Weld-Blundell collection", donated by Herbert Weld Blundell to the Ashmolean Museum. WB 62 is a small clay tablet, inscribed only on the obverse, unearthed from Larsa. It is the oldest dated source (c. 2000 BC) containing the list.^[6] WB 444 in contrast is a unique inscribed vertical prism,^[1][7][8][9] dated c. 1817 BC, although some scholars prefer c. 1827 BC.^[10] The Kish Tablet or Scheil dynastic tablet is an early 2nd millennium BC tablet which came into possession of Jean-Vincent Scheil; it only contains king list entries for four Sumerian cities.^[11] UCBC 9-1819 is a clay tablet housed in the collection of the Museum of Anthropology at the University of California.^[12] The tablet was inscribed during the reign of the Babylonian King Samsu-iluna, or slightly earlier, with a minimum date of 1712 BC.^[13] The Dynastic Chronicle (ABC 18) is a Babylonian king list written on six columns, beginning with entries for the antideluvian Sumerian rulers. K 11261+^[14] is one of the copies of this chronicle, consisting of three joined Neo-Assyrian fragments discovered at the Library of Ashurbanipal.^[15] K 12054 is another of the Neo-Assyrian fragments from Uruk (c. 640 BC) but contains a variant form of the antediluvians on the list. The later Babylonian and Assyrian king lists, preserved the earliest portions of the list well into the 3rd century BC, when Berossus' Babyloniaca popularized fragments of the list in the Hellenic world. In 1960, the Apkullu-list (Tablet No. W.20030, 7) or “Uruk List of Kings and Sages” (ULKS) was discovered by German archaeologists at an ancient temple at Uruk. The list, dating to c. 165 BC, contains a series of kings, equivalent to the Sumerian antediluvians called "Apkullu".^[16]

The list[edit]

Early dates are approximate, and are based on available archaeological data; for most pre-Akkadian rulers listed, this king list is itself the lone source of information. Beginning with Lugal-zage-si and the Third Dynasty of Uruk (which was defeated by Sargon of Akkad), a better understanding of how subsequent rulers fit into the chronology of the ancient Near East can be deduced. The short chronology is used here.

Antediluvian rulers[edit]

None of the following predynastic "antediluvian" rulers has been verified as historical via archaeological excavations, epigraphical inscriptions, or otherwise. It is possible that they correspond to the Early Bronze AgeJemdet Nasr period culture which ended approximately 2900 BC, immediately preceding the dynasts,^[17] if they were not purely mythological inventions.

The following reigns were measured in Sumerian numerical units known as sars (units of 3600), ners (units of 600), and sosses (units of 60).^[18]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
"After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridug. In Eridug, Alulim became king; he ruled for 28800 years."
Alulim		8 sars (28,800 years)	Between 35th and 30th century BC
Alalngar		10 sars (36,000 years)
"Then Eridug fell and the kingship was taken to Bad-tibira."
En-men-lu-ana		12 sars (43,200 years)
En-men-gal-ana		8 sars (28,800 years)
Dumuzid, the Shepherd	"the shepherd"	10 sars (36,000 years)
"Then Bad-tibira fell and the kingship was taken to Larag."
En-sipad-zid-ana		8 sars (28,800 years)
"Then Larag fell and the kingship was taken to Zimbir."
En-men-dur-ana		5 sars and 5 ners (21,000 years)
"Then Zimbir fell and the kingship was taken to Shuruppag."
Ubara-Tutu		5 sars and 1 ner (18,600 years)
"Then the flood swept over." Excavations in Iraq have revealed evidence of localized flooding at Shuruppak (modern Tell Fara, Iraq) and various other Sumerian cities. A layer of riverine sediments, radiocarbon datedto ca. 2900 BC, interrupts the continuity of settlement, extending as far north as the city of Kish.Polychrome pottery from the Jemdet Nasr period (3000-2900 BC) was discovered immediately below the Shuruppak flood stratum.[19]

First Dynasty of Kish[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
"After the flood had swept over, and the kingship had descended from heaven, the kingship was inKish."
Jushur		1200 years	historicity uncertain	names before Etana do not appear in any other known source, and their existence is archaeologically unverified
Kullassina-bel		960 years
Nangishlishma		670 years
En-tarah-ana		420 years
Babum		300 years
Puannum		840 years
Kalibum		960 years
Kalumum		840 years
Zuqaqip		900 years
Atab (or A-ba)		600 years
Mashda	"the son of Atab"	840 years
Arwium	"the son of Mashda"	720 years
Etana	"the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries"	1500 years
Balih	"the son of Etana"	400 years
En-me-nuna		660 years
Melem-Kish	"the son of En-me-nuna"	900 years
Barsal-nuna	("the son of En-me-nuna")*	1200 years
Zamug	"the son of Barsal-nuna"	140 years
Tizqar	"the son of Zamug"	305 years
Ilku		900 years
Iltasadum		1200 years
En-me-barage-si	"who made the land of Elamsubmit"	900 years	ca. 2600 BC	the earliest ruler on the List confirmed independently from epigraphical evidence
Aga of Kish	"the son of En-me-barage-si"	625 years	ca. 2600 BC	contemporary with Gilgamesh ofUruk, according to theEpic of Gilgamesh[6] Gilgameš and Aga Translation at ETCSL
"Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to E-ana."

First Dynasty of Uruk[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Mesh-ki-ang-gasherof E-ana	"the son of Utu"	324 years	ca. 27th
"Mesh-ki-ang-gasher entered the sea and disappeared."
Enmerkar	"the son of Mesh-ki-ang-gasher, the king of Unug, who built Unug(Uruk)"	420 years
Lugalbanda	"the shepherd"	1200 years
Dumuzid (Dumuzi)	"the fisherman whose city was Kuara." ("He capturedEn-me-barage-si single-handed.")*	100 years	ca. 2600 BC
Gilgamesh	"whose father was a phantom (?), the lord of Kulaba"	126 years	ca. 2600 BC	contemporary withAga of Kish, according to theEpic of Gilgamesh[20]
Ur-Nungal	"the son of Gilgamesh"	30 years
Udul-kalama	"the son of Ur-Nungal"	15 years
La-ba'shum		9 years
En-nun-tarah-ana		8 years
Mesh-he	"the smith"	36 years
Melem-ana		6 years
Lugal-kitun		36 years
"Then Unug was defeated and the kingship was taken to Urim (Ur)."

First Dynasty of Ur[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Mesh-Ane-pada		80 years	ca. 26th century BC
Mesh-ki-ang-Nuna	"the son of Mesh-Ane-pada"	36 years
Elulu		25 years
Balulu		36 years
"Then Urim was defeated and the kingship was taken to Awan."

Dynasty of Awan[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Three kings of Awan		356 years	ca. 26th century BC
"Then Awan was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kish."

Second Dynasty of Kish[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Susuda	"the fuller"	201 years	ca. 26th century BC
Dadasig		81 years
Mamagal	"the boatman"	360 years
Kalbum	"the son of Mamagal"	195 years
Tuge		360 years
Men-nuna	"the son of Tuge"	180 years
(Enbi-Ishtar)		290 years
Lugalngu		360 years
"Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to Hamazi."

The First Dynasty of Lagash (ca. 2500 – ca. 2271 BC) is not mentioned in the King List, though it is well known from inscriptions

Dynasty of Hamazi[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Hadanish		360 years	ca. 2500 BC
"Then Hamazi was defeated and the kingship was taken to Unug (Uruk)."

Second Dynasty of Uruk[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
En-shag-kush-ana		60 years	ca. 25th century BC	said to have conquered parts of Sumer; then Eannatum of Lagashclaims to have taken over Sumer, Kish, and all Mesopotamia.
Lugal-kinishe-dudu or Lugal-ure		120 years		contemporary with Entemena ofLagash
Argandea		7 years
"Then Unug was defeated and the kingship was taken to Urim (Ur)."

Second Dynasty of Ur[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Nanni		120 years	ca. 25th century BC
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II	"the son of Nanni"	48 years
(?)		2 years
"Then Urim was defeated and the kingship was taken to Adab."

Dynasty of Adab[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Lugal-Ane-mundu		90 years	ca. 25th century BC	said to have conquered allMesopotamia from the Persian Gulfto the Zagros Mountains and Elam
"Then Adab was defeated and the kingship was taken to Mari."

Dynasty of Mari[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Anbu		30 years	ca. 25th century BC
Anba	"the son of Anbu"	17 years
Bazi	"the leatherworker"	30 years
Zizi of Mari	"the fuller"	20 years
Limer	"the 'gudug' priest"	30 years
Sharrum-iter		9 years
"Then Mari was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kish."

Third Dynasty of Kish[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Kug-Bau(Kubaba)	"the woman tavern-keeper, who made firm the foundations of Kish"	100 years	ca. 25th century BC	the only known woman in the King List; said to have gained independence from En-anna-tum Iof Lagash and En-shag-kush-anaof Uruk; contemporary with Puzur-Nirah of Akshak, according to the later Chronicle of the É-sagila
"Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to Akshak."

Dynasty of Akshak[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Unzi		30 years	ca. 25th – 24th century BC
Undalulu		6 years
Urur		6 years
Puzur-Nirah		20 years		contemporary with Kug-Bau of Kish, according to the later Chronicle of É-sagila
Ishu-Il		24 years
Shu-Suen of Akshak	"the son of Ishu-Il"	7 years
"Then Akshak was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kish."

Fourth Dynasty of Kish[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Puzur-Suen	"the son ofKug-Bau"	25 years	ca. 24th – 23rd century BC
Ur-Zababa	"the son of Puzur-Suen"	400 (6?) years	ca. 2300 BC	according to the king list,Sargon of Akkad was his cup-bearer
Zimudar		30 years
Usi-watar	"the son of Zimudar"	7 years
Eshtar-muti		11 years
Ishme-Shamash		11 years
(Shu-ilishu)*		(15 years)*
Nanniya	"the jeweller"	7 years	ca. 2303-2296 BC (short)
"Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to Unug (Uruk)."

Third Dynasty of Uruk[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Lugal-zage-si		25 years	ca. 2296–2271 BC (short)	said to have defeated Urukagina of Lagash, as well as Kish and other Sumerian cities, creating a unified kingdom; he in turn was overthrown by Sargon of Akkad
"Then Unug was defeated and the kingship was taken to Agade (Akkad)"

Dynasty of Akkad[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Sargon of Akkad	"whose father was a gardener, the cupbearer of Ur-Zababa, became king, the king of Agade, who built Agade"	40 years	ca. 2270–2215 BC (short)	defeatedLugal-zage-siof Uruk, took over Sumer, and created the Akkadian Empire
Rimush of Akkad	"the son of Sargon"	9 years	ca. 2214–2206 BC (short)
Man-ishtishu	"the older brother of Rimush, the son of Sargon"	15 years	ca. 2205–2191 BC (short)
Naram-Sin of Akkad	"the son of Man-ishtishu"	56 years	ca. 2190–2154 BC (short)
Shar-kali-sharri	"the son of Naram-Sin"	25 years	ca. 2153–2129 BC (short)
"Then who was king? Who was not the king?"
Irgigi Imi Nanum Ilulu	"and the 4 of them ruled for only 3 years"		ca. 2128–2125 BC (short)
Dudu of Akkad		21 years	ca. 2125–2104 BC (short)
Shu-Durul	"the son of Dudu"	15 years	ca. 2104–2083 BC (short)	Akkad falls to the Gutians
"Then Agade was defeated and the kingship was taken to Unug (Uruk)."

Fourth Dynasty of Uruk[edit]

(Possibly rulers of lower Mesopotamia contemporary with the Dynasty of Akkad)

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Ur-ningin		7 years	ca. 2091? – 2061? BC (short)
Ur-gigir	"the son of Ur-ningin"	6 years
Kuda		6 years
Puzur-ili		5 years
Ur-Utu (or Lugal-melem)	("the son of Ur-gigir")*	25 years
"Unug was defeated and the kingship was taken to the army of Gutium."

The 2nd Dynasty of Lagash (before ca. 2093–2046 BC (short)) is not mentioned in the King List, though it is well known from inscriptions.

Gutian rule[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
"In the army of Gutium, at first no king was famous; they were their own kings and ruled thus for 3 years."
Inkishush		6 years	ca. 2147–2050 BC (short)
Zarlagab		6 years
Shulme (or Yarlagash)		6 years
Silulumesh (or Silulu)		6 years
Inimabakesh (or Duga)		5 years
Igeshaush (or Ilu-An)		6 years
Yarlagab		3 years
Ibate of Gutium		3 years
Yarla (or Yarlangab)		3 years
Kurum		1 year
Apilkin		3 years
La-erabum		2 years		mace head inscription
Irarum		2 years
Ibranum		1 year
Hablum		2 years
Puzur-Suen	"the son of Hablum"	7 years
Yarlaganda		7 years		foundation inscription at Umma
(?)		7 years		Si-um or Si-u? — foundation inscription at Umma
Tirigan		40 days		defeated by Utu-hengal of Uruk
"Then the army of Gutium was defeated and the kingship taken to Unug (Uruk)."

Fifth Dynasty of Uruk[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Utu-hengal		conflicting dates (427 years / 26 years / 7 years)	ca. 2055–2048 BC (short)	defeats Tirigan and the Gutians, appoints Ur-Namma governor of Ur
"Then Unug was defeated and the kingship was taken to Urim (Ur)."

Third Dynasty of Ur[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Ur-Namma(Ur-Nammu)		18 years	ca. 2047–2030 BC (short)	defeats Nammahani of Lagash; contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk
Shulgi	"the son of Ur-Namma"	46 years	ca. 2029–1982 BC (short)	possible lunar/solar eclipse 2005 BC
Amar-Suena	"the son of Shulgi"	9 years	ca. 1981–1973 BC (short)
Shu-Suen	"the son of Amar-Suena"	9 years	ca. 1972–1964 BC (short)
Ibbi-Suen	"the son of Shu-Suen"	24 years	ca. 1963–1940 BC (short)
"Then Urim was defeated. The very foundation of Sumer was torn out. The kingship was taken toIsin."

Independent Amorite states in lower Mesopotamia. The Dynasty of Larsa (ca. 1961–1674 BC (short)) from this period is not mentioned in the King List.

Dynasty of Isin[edit]

Ruler	Epithet	Length of reign	Approx. dates	Comments
Ishbi-Erra		33 years	ca. 1953–1730 BC (short)	contemporary of Ibbi-Suen ofUr
Shu-Ilishu	"the son of Ishbi-Erra"	20 years
Iddin-Dagan	"the son of Shu-ilishu"	20 years
Ishme-Dagan	"the son of Iddin-Dagan"	20 years
Lipit-Eshtar	"the son of Ishme-Dagan (or Iddin-Dagan)"	11 years		contemporary of Gungunum ofLarsa
Ur-Ninurta	("the son of Ishkur, may he have years of abundance, a good reign, and a sweet life")*	28 years		Contemporary of Abisare ofLarsa
Bur-Suen	"the son of Ur-Ninurta"	21 years
Lipit-Enlil	"the son of Bur-Suen"	5 years
Erra-imitti		8 years		He appointed his gardener, Enlil-Bani, substitute king and then suddenly died.
Enlil-bani		24 years		contemporary of Sumu-la-El ofBabylon. He was Erra-imitti's gardener and was appointed substitute king, to serve as a scapegoat and then sacrificed, but remained on the throne when Erra.imitti suddenly died.
Zambiya		3 years		contemporary of Sin-Iqisham ofLarsa
Iter-pisha		4 years
Ur-du-kuga		4 years
Suen-magir		11 years
(Damiq-ilishu)*	("the son of Suen-magir")*	(23 years)*

* These epithets or names are not included in all versions of the king list.

See also[edit]

Ancient Near East portal

• Chronology of the Ancient Near East
• Cities of the ancient Near East
• History of Sumer
• Kings of Assyria
• List of kings of Iraq
• List of lists of ancient kings
• List of Mesopotamian dynasties
• Short chronology timeline

References[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Van De Mieroop, Marc (2004). A History of the Ancient Near East. Blackwell. p. 41. ISBN 0-631-22552-8.
2. Jump up^ The spelling of royal names follows the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
3. Jump up^ von Soden, Wolfram; Donald G. Schley, translator (1994). The Ancient Orient. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 47. ISBN 0-8028-0142-0.
4. Jump up^ translation
5. Jump up^ translation
6. Jump up^ Langdon, OECT2 (1923), pl. 6.
7. Jump up^ [1] Stephen Langdon, Historical inscriptions, containing principally the chronological prism, W-B 444, Oxford University Press, 1923
8. Jump up^ "WB-444 High Resolution Image from CDLI".
9. Jump up^ "WB-444 Line Art from CDLI".
10. Jump up^ Ancient Iraq: (Assyria and Babylonia), Peter Roger Stuart Moorey, Ashmolean Museum, 1976; The Sumerian King List, T. Jacobsen, University of Chicago Press, 1939, p. 77.
11. Jump up^ "The Early Chronology of Sumer and Egypt and the Similarities in Their Culture", S. Langdon, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 7, No. 3/4, Oct., 1921, p. 133. [2]
12. Jump up^ "The Antediluvian Kings: A University of California Tablet", J. J. Finkelstein, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1963, p. 39.
13. Jump up^ Finkelstein, 1963, pp.39-40.
14. Jump up^ Lambert and Millard, Cuneiform Texts 46 Nr. 5
15. Jump up^ Bilingual Chronicle Fragments, Irving L. Finkel, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 32, No. 2, Apr., 1980, pp. 65-80.
16. Jump up^ A copy of the tablet appears in Jan van Dijk and Werner R. Mayer, Texte aus dem Rès-Heiligtum in Uruk-Warka, Bagdader Mitteilungen Beiheft 2 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1980), text no. 89 (= BaMB 2 89). For an edition of the text, see J. van Dijk, Die Inschriftenfunde, Vorläufiger Bericht über die... Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka 18 (1962), 44-52 and plate 27. [3]
17. Jump up^ Wright, Henry. "The Earliest Bronze Age in Southwest Asia (3100-2700 BC)". Retrieved 2008-07-04.
18. Jump up^ [4] Christine Proust, Numerical and Metrological Graphemes: From Cuneiform to Transliteration, Cuneiform Digital Library Journal, 2009, ISSN 1540-8779
19. Jump up^ Harriet Crawford, Sumer and the Sumerians, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-521-53338-6
20. Jump up^ [5] Gilgameš and Aga Translation at ETCSL

Literature[edit]

• Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Sumerian King List. Oriental Institute, Assyriological Studies 11, University of Chicago Press, 1939
• Rowton, M. B. The Date of the Sumerian King List, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 156–162, 1960
• P. Steinkeller, An Ur III Manuscript of the Sumerian King List. In Literatur, Politik und Recht in Mesopotamien: Festschrift fur Claus Wilcke, ed. W. Sallaberger et al., Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 267–92, 2003
• Young, Dwight W. The Incredible Regnal Spans of Kish I in the Sumerian King List, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 23–35, 1991
• Hallo, William W. Beginning and End of the Sumerian King List in the Nippur Recension, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 52–57, 1963
• Vincente, Claudine-Adrienne, "The Tall Leilan Recension of the Sumerian King List", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 50 (1995), 234–270
• Friberg, Jöran. "The Beginning and the End of the Sumerian King List", in A remarkable collection of Babylonian mathematical texts: Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection Cuneiform Texts I, Springer, 2007, ISBN 0-387-34543-4
• Michalowski, Piotr. History as Charter Some Observations on the Sumerian King List, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 103, no. 1, pp. 237–248, 1983
• Jean-Jacques Glassner, Mesopotamian Chronicles, Brill, 2005, ISBN 90-04-13084-5
• J. J. Finkelstein, The Antediluvian Kings: A University of California Tablet, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 39–51, 1963
• Albrecht Goetze, Early Kings of Kish, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 105–111, 1961
• Thomas Jacobs, The Sumerian King List, UGent paper, GONO department

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• Akkadian Empire
• Akkadian people
• Amorite people
• Fertile Crescent
• Ancient history of Iraq
• Iraq-related lists
• King lists
• Legendary rulers