| Part of a series on |
| Ancient Egyptian religion |
|---|
 |
 Ancient Egypt portal |
Catechu (/ˈkætɨʃuː/ or /ˈkætɨtʃuː/)[1] is an extract of acacia trees used variously as a food additive, astringent, tannin, and dye. It is extracted from several species of Acacia, but especially , Senegalia catechu (Acacia catechu), by boiling the wood in water and evaporating the resulting brew.[2] It is also known as cutch, black cutch, cachou, cashoo, khoyer, terra Japonica, or Japan earth, and also katha in Hindi, kaath in Marathi, khoyer in Assamese and Bengali, and kachu in Malay (hence the Latinized [3]Acacia catechu chosen as the Linnaean taxonomy name of the type-species Acacia plant which provides the extract).
As an astringent it has been used since ancient times in Ayurvedic medicine as well as in breath-freshening spice mixtures—for example in France and Italy it is used in some licorice pastilles. It is also an important ingredient in South Asian cooking paan mixtures, such as ready-made paan masala and gutka.
The catechu mixture is high in natural vegetable tannins (which accounts for its astringent effect), and may be used for the tanning of animal hides. Early research by Sir Humphry Davy in the early 19th century first demonstrated the use of catechu in tanning over more expensive and traditional oak extracts.
Under the name cutch, it is a brown dye used for tanning and dyeing and for preserving fishing nets and sails. Cutch will dye wool, silk, and cotton a yellowish-brown. Cutch gives gray-browns with an iron mordant and olive-browns with a copper mordant.[4]
White cutch, also known as gambier, gambeer, or gambir, which is extracted from Uncaria gambir[6] has the same uses.
Derivative chemicals[edit]
The catechu extract gave its name to the catechin and catechol chemical families first derived from it.
See also[edit]
Iusaset (/juːˈsæsɛt/; "the great one who comes forth") or Iusaas /aɪˈjuːsəs/ is the name of a primal goddess in Ancient Egyptian religion. She also is described as "the grandmother of all of the deities". This allusion is without any reference to a grandfather, so there might have been a very early, but now lost, myth with parthenogenesis as the means of the birth of the deities from the region where her cult arose near the delta of the Nile. Many alternative spellings of her name include Iusaaset, Juesaes, Ausaas, and Jusas, as well as in Greek Saosis /ˌseɪˈoʊsɨs/.
Art[edit]
In Ancient Egyptian art, Iusaaset appears as a woman wearing the horned vulture crown with the uraeus and the solar disk in it, and she carries an ankh in one hand and a scepter in the other. The Egyptian vulture, most sacred to the ancient Egyptians and symbolizing Nekhbet, one of the Two Ladies protecting Egypt, was thought to reproduce though parthenogenesis also. This association might be the basis for the similar view about the motherhood of Iusaaset. The vultures also were considered extremely good mothers. The horns, the uraeus, and the solar disk make a religious connection to Batand Hathor.
Because of Iusaaset’s link to the vulture and uraeus, it can be assumed that she links together both upper and lower Egypt, much like the goddess Mut who she is also associated with.
Although her origins are unclear, Iusaaset seems to be attested quite early in the Egyptian pantheon, being associated with creation and the creation of the deities. Many myths relate that she was seen as the mother of the first deities and the grandmother of the following deities, having watched over the birth of the ones that were her grandchildren. She remains as a primary deity in the pantheon throughout all eras of the culture, even through the Persian, Hyksos, Greek, and Roman occupations, and regardless of changes in the specific myths.
Association with acacia tree[edit]
Iusaaset was associated with the acacia tree,[1] considered the tree of life, and thus with the oldest one known being situated just north of Heliopolis and, thereby, which became identified as the birthplace of the deities. Iusaaset was said to own this tree. The acacia tree was renowned for its strength, hardiness, medical properties, and edibility. Many useful applications gave it a central importance in the culture.
Changes in myths[edit]
One belief held that Iusaaset and Atum (Ra) were the parents of Shu and Tefnut, the first deities. In this myth she often was described as his shadow, sister, or wife. Later other goddesses also became associated with Atum and one variant even relates that he gave birth to the deities, although that variant seems to have been rejected by many cultural and religious centers.
During the Old Kingdom the Egyptians believed that Atum lifted the dead pharaoh's soul from the tomb to the starry heavens.[2] By the time of the New Kingdom, the Atum myth had merged in the Egyptian pantheon with that of Ra, who later was described as a creator and a solar deity as his cult arose. Their two identities were joined into Atum-Ra. After they were combined, Ra was seen as the whole sun and Atum came to be seen as the sun when it sets in the west (depicted as an old man leaning on his staff), while Khepri was seen as the sun when it was rising.
At these later times Iusaaset sometimes is described as the eye of Ra.
In Egyptian mythology, in the Ennead system of Heliopolis, the first couple, apart from Shu and Tefnut (moisture and dryness) and Geb and Nuit (earth and sky), are Isis and Osiris. They were said to have emerged from the acacia tree of Iusaaset, which the Egyptians considered the tree of life, referring to it as the "tree in which life and death are enclosed." Acacia trees contain DMT, a psychedelic drug associated with spiritual experiences. A much later myth relates how Set killed Osiris, putting him in a coffin, and throwing it into the Nile, the coffin becoming embedded in the base of a tamarisk tree.
CUTCH
Summary of Basic Information
| Usage: |
|
| Product synonyms: | Cutch black catechu ) for unrefined khair ) product |
| Product type and form traded: | Dried aqueous extract of tree heartwood. |
| Botanical source: | Acacia catechu Willd. (family: Leguminosae); both from wild and cultivated trees. |
| Synonyms for botanical source: | "Cutch" or "catechu" or "khair" tree in India; "sha" in Myanmar; "sa-che" or variants of "seesiat" in Thailand. |
| Distribution: | (a) Natural range is in an arc across southern Himalayas from Pakistan, through Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar to Thailand and, possibly, extending into Yunnan Province, China; (b) introduced to Indonesia. |
| World production: | Possibly between 6,000-9,000 tonnes per annum. |
| International trade: | Poorly quantified, possibly 1,500 tonnes per annum mainly in Asian region. |
| Major producers: | India (with smaller-scale production in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand). |
| Major importer: | Pakistan. |
| Availability of reliable published information: | Fair. |
Description and Dyestuff Uses
"Cutch" is the purified aqueous extract of the heartwood of the multipurpose tree, Acacia catechu Willd. This deciduous, thorny species grows up to 15 m high and is indigenous to the southern range of the Himalayas (extending in India as far south as Andhra Pradesh and Orissa), Myanmar and northern Thailand.
Processing involves three stages: production of a crude extract "black catechu"; isolation of "katha" and solidification of the residue, "cutch".
"Black catechu" has been traditionally employed in the producer countries for crude dyeing, leather tanning and in indigenous medicines.
The further processed "cutch" is employed as a cheap brown dye and preservative for canvas, fishing nets and similar items and also as a tanning agent for leather, particularly in India. In more recent times, cutch has found use as a viscosity modifier in oil well drilling. It is composed mainly of catechu-tannic acid with catechin, catechu red, quercetin and a gum as minor components.
"Katha" is a brown semi-crystalline substance which contains catechin and its isomers. It is used as an ingredient of "pan" and "pan marsala" chewing confectionery in India.
World Demand and Supply Trends
International Trade
Black catechu" is included in several European pharmacopoeias but the current scale of usage, if any, is insignificant. There appear to be no imports of cutch into developed country markets for use as a dyestuff or as a tanning agent.
Trade in cutch appears restricted to the traditional usage areas of the Indian sub-continent and certain countries in Southeast Asia. Imports have been reported for Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar, which are not self-sufficient in domestic production, and by China. The scale of this trade cannot be precisely quantified but probably totals only slightly larger than India's exports, i.e., around 1,500 tonnes annually.
Production and Exports
The major producer of cutch and katha is India where production is based in the northern provinces on wild and cultivated trees and involves both cottage-scale and industrial-scale processing (with some factories having a throughput capacity of 1,000 tonnes of raw material per month). Up-to-date information is not available for India on output levels or on the breakdown in domestic usage of cutch between dyestuff, tanning and medicinal applications. However, factories have recently reported difficulties in operating at full capacity owing to raw material supply problems; the tree is valued as a fuelwood and for other purposes. During the mid-1970s, some 63,000 tonnes of wood were consumed annually by the katha/cutch industry and this is estimated crudely as providing around 5,000-6,000 tonnes of cutch. India recorded exports of 1,000-1,300 tonnes of cutch annually over 1988-1993 with Pakistan as the major destination.
Minor producers of unrefined "black catechu" include Myanmar, Thailand, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Reliable data are available only for Thailand; current production is cottage-industry type, based on a limited natural resource with sales mainly to the domestic traditional medicine market but involving small exports to Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh.
The absence of reliable data makes it impossible to predict a market trend for cutch as a dyestuff or tanning agent. However, a continued substantial demand may be expected in the traditional regional market and this could possibly increase along with population growth, demand for manufactured goods and industrialization. The major perceived constraint lies with the availability of the wood raw material which is already under pressure from alternative uses, particularly as a fuelwood, in many countries.
Prices and Qualities
The following prices were reported in an FAO study for October 1992.
Table 7: Wood and cutch prices for India and Thailand, 1992
| Wood | up to US$ 240/m3 | ca. US$ 13/m3 |
| Best quality katha | US$ 15/kg | |
| Cutch | US$ 0.80/kg | |
| Crude extract | US$ 0.80/kg |
Source: Kashio, M. (1992).
Quality standards for cutch and katha have been published by the Indian Standards Institution.
Prospects for New Suppliers
Supply shortages for cutch could develop within the main traditional regional markets of Asia owing to the high demand for the raw material as fuelwood. This might offer the opportunity for entrance to the market by new sources, both for export on a modest scale and to supply any domestic demand. Prospective candidates include Nepal and Indonesia; the tree is indigenous in the former and it has been established as an exotic on plantations in the latter. However, the opportunities or constraints for new ventures require a thorough supply and demand study in the region, and this must also take into account trends in usage of alternative, inexpensive natural and synthetic dyestuffs and tannins.
Silviculture, Harvesting and Processing
Climate and Soil Requirements
A. catechu is found in moderate rainfall areas over its natural range from the Southern Himalayas down to northern Thailand. It has not proven suitable for the most dry or heavy rainfall areas in India. The altitude limit in the Himalayas is around 1,200 m. It is adaptable to a wide range of well-drained soils, even poor stony types which are unsuitable for many other trees.
Production Systems
In India, the tree is grown on large plantations and in smaller, communal lots (in which it is exploited for fuelwood and village-scale processing purposes).
Variability in Germplasm
Several varieties of A. catechu are recognised in India and they possess differing characteristics. The three main types are var. catechu in the Western Himalayas; var. catechuoides in the Eastern Himalayas; and var. chundra in the more southerly areas.
Propagation
Seeds are employed for propagation and germination is reported as improved by hot-water pre-treatment. Seedlings are raised in nurseries for about six months prior to field planting (at spacings of 2 m x 4 m or greater).
Husbandry and Management
Weeding is the most important action in the early years after establishment.
Rotation regimes depend upon the intended usage: for fuelwood production in India, felling is usually at 10-15 years of age; trunks with a diameter of 30-35 cm are considered the most economic for cutch extraction and this size may not be achieved for 30 years.
Photo 3: Heartwood of Acacia catechu being cut and chipped for extraction
of cutch and katha (Photo: M.Kashio)
of cutch and katha (Photo: M.Kashio)
Processing
The dark heartwood of the trunk and of branches greater than 2.5 cm diameter are employed for extraction. Freshly cut material should be employed to optimise extraction yields.
Modern village-scale processing in India involves a number of distinct operations. Heartwood is mechanically chipped prior to the first extraction which is undertaken in metal, open-topped pots of 40 litres capacity. Approximately 10 kg of chips, supported in a wire basket, are boiled with 25 litres of water for 2 hours. The extract is removed and the chips are subjected to a second extraction. The combined extracts are filtered and are then concentrated by boiling in the metal pots until the specific gravity attains approximately 1.05. Katha crystallizes out over a period of several days from the concentrate and this is removed with the aid of a filter press; final preparation of the katha prior to sale involves maceration in clean water, filtering, pressing and drying to around 10% moisture content. The filtrate obtained after removal of the katha is concentrated by evaporation to a viscous state and is then allowed to solidify as cutch.
Factory-scale processing is basically similar but on a larger scale (typically 2.5 tonnes of heartwood per batch extraction) with additional mechanical aids. The extraction may be carried out both at atmospheric pressure or in autoclaves at 100-110?C; the process is repeated on the chips six times with the complete operation taking about 12 hours per batch. The extracts are concentrated in a steam-heated vacuum evaporator and the product is then stored at 0?C for 12 days to crystallize out the katha. The cutch residue is subjected to vacuum concentration and is finally poured into wooden boxes (holding 25 kg) to solidify.
Cutch and katha may be cut into pieces for sale, if required by the buyer, and the katha is sometimes reduced to a powder.
Yields
Heartwood yields vary considerably according to the size of the trees at felling and the planting density.
Processing yields based on heartwood feedstock average 4% for katha and 8% for cutch.
Developmental Needs
Processing methods have been well defined in India and more recently have been re-examined in Thailand. Similarly, there is a substantial body of Indian silvicultural data on the species. Needs for future research on production relate mainly to definition of climatic limit constraints, particularly in the humid tropics.
The immediate developmental requirement is for a thorough market study which will define the opportunities or constraints for further expansion of production and trade.
Other Uses
As noted earlier, cutch is employed as a tanning agent for leather and in oil well drilling. Both crude and refined cutch and extracts of the tree bark have been traditionally used in medicine, usually as an astringent for treatment of sore throats and diarrhoea.
However, the primary demand for the tree in many growing sites is as a coppiceable fuelwood source. The timber is regarded highly, also, for furniture and implement manufacture.
The thorny branches are frequently employed for the construction of animal-proof hedges.
The tree is one of the hosts for lac insects.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Economics (principally of processing)
KASHIO, M. (1992). Chemical Processing and Utilization of Acacia catechu Willd. Report no. RAPA 1992/19. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific.
Silviculture
AMATA-ARCHACHAI, P. and HELLUM, A.K. (1984). Seed collection of Acacia catechu Willd. Embryon. ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre, 1(1), 41-47.
LARSON, E. (1964). Germination response of Acacia seeds to boiling. Australian Forestry Research, 1(1), 51-53.
MISHRA, N.M. and SINGH, J. (1985). Local volume tables for Acacia catechu and Lannea Grandis. Indian Forester, 13(6),385-396.
RAINA, A.K. et al. (1990). Application of nutrients on growth of Acacia catechu in nursery bed. Indian Forester, 116(8), 655-662.
SINGH, S.P. and JAIN, R.C. (1987). Yield of heartwood in Acacia catechu (khair) for use in katha manufacture. Indian Forester, 113(6), 404-408.
SHAKYA, R. (1990). Plantation establishment pattern for community forestry plantations in the bhabar terai. Banko Janakeri, 2(4), 407-409.
SHARMA, R.P. (1981). Yield tables for Acacia catechu at various levels of stocking. Indian Forester, 107(9), 551-567.
SHERPA, S. et al. (1993). Interim report on silvicultural research trials. Dhankuta, Nepal: Pakhribas Agricultural Centre Working Paper No. 41 (19 pp.).
TEWARI, D.N. (1994). Biodiversity and Forest Genetic Resources. Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors (329 pp.).
TOKY, O.P. and BISHT, R.P. (1993). Above-ground and below-ground biomass in important fuelwood trees from arid north-western India. J. Arid Environments, 25(3), 315?320.
Processing and Utilization
ALI, M.S. et al. (1992). Utilization of Acacia catechu leaves for dyeing textiles. Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res., 27(3/4), 158-163.
AWASTI, A.K. (1982). Katha plant, a typical forest industry. Myforest, 18(1), 23-27.
DOBHAL, N.P. and BERI, R.M. (1981). A note on the katha content of Acacia catechu Willd. Growing in thick and open forests. Indian Forester, 107(4), 252-254.
FAO (1992). Chemical Processing and Utilization of Acacia catechu Willd (see Economics reference).
GUPTA, R. and AGARWAL, M. (1979). Katha production in the Terai areas of Uttar Pradesh. Proceedings of a Symposium on Production and Utilization of Forest Products, Jammu, India; Vol. 1, pp. 240-242. Jammu, India: Regional Research Laboratory.
JAIN, P.P. (1980). A note on the production of katha and cutch in India. Indian Forester, 106, 569-573.
KAMIS-AWANG and TAYLOR, D.A.; editors. (1993). Acacias for Rural, Industrial and Environmental Development. Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the Consultative Group for Research and Development of Acacias (CONGREDA), Udorn Thani, Thailand, Feb. 1993. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO Forestry Research Programme for Asia and the Pacific.
SHARMA, O.P. (1981). Chemistry and Technology of Katha and Cutch Manufacturing. Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors (303 pp.).
TEWARI, D.N. (1994). Tropical Forest Produce. Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors.
Quality Control
DECHATIWONGSE, T. and JEWVACHDAMRONGKUL, Y. (1986). Quality determination of catechus. Bull., Dept. Med. Sci., 28(1), 79-91.
DESHPANDE, V.H. and PATIL, A.D. (1981). Flavanoids of Acacia catechu heartwood. Indian J. Chem., 20B, 628.
INDIAN STANDARDS INSTITUTION. (1964). Indian Standards Methods of Sampling and Test for Katha, IS: 2962-1964. New Delhi, India: Indian Standards Institution.
INDIAN STANDARDS INSTITUTION. (1967). Indian Standard Specification for Cutch, IS: 3967-1967. New Delhi, India: Indian Standards Institution.
INDIAN STANDARDS INSTITUTION. (1967). Indian Standard Specification for Katha, IS: 4359-1967. New Delhi, India: Indian Standards Institution.
INDIAN STANDARDS INSTITUTION. (1969). Indian Standard Methods of Test for Vegetable Tanning Materials, IS: 5466-1969. New Delhi, India: Indian Standards Institution.
Non-Dyestuff Uses
BOAZ, A.A. and BOAZ, O. (1994). The forest infanticide - a case study of the removal of brushwood from the forests of Naoradehi Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh). Indian Forester, 120(1), 35-39.
JAIN, S.K. (1979). Utilization of indigenous tanning materials in leather with special reference to cutch. Proceedings of a Symposium on Production and Utilization of Forest Products; Jammu, March 1979. Vol. 1, pp. 217-219. Jammu, India: Regional Research Laboratory.
RAJARAM, N. and JANARDHANAN, K. (1991). Studies on under-exploited tree pulses, Acacia catechu, Parkinsonia aculeata and Prosopsis chilensis.Food Chemistry, 42(3), 265?273.
SHULKA, K.S. et al. (1985). Development of hardboards from spent chips of Acacia catechu. Indian Forester, 111(5), 339-344.
WITHINGTON, D. et al., editors (1988). Multipurpose Tree Species for Small-Farm Use. Proceedings of an International Workshop held November 1987 in Pattaya, Thailand. Co-published by IRDC and Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development.
BRAZILIN FROM THE AMERICAN BRAZILWOODS AND EAST INDIAN SAPPANWOOD
Summary of Basic Information
| Usage:
Product synonyms:
| Red dyestuff for textiles and paper. | Textile dyeing and wood staining (in Asia). |
| (a) Wood | Brazilwood; Nicaragua wood; brasilette; Lima wood; Pernambuco wood; Bahia wood. | Sappanwood; Indian redwood; kayu secang (Indonesia); sibukoa, sapang (the Philippines); sepang (Malaysia); teing-yet (Myanmar); faang (Thailand); vang nhuom (Viet Nam). |
| (b) Extract | Brazilin; brazilein. | |
| Raw material source: | Heartwood of wild trees. | Heartwood of wild and cultivated trees. |
| Botanical source: | Haematoxylin brasiletto Karst.; Caesalpinia echinata Lam.; C. brasilensis L. (all in Leguminosae family) and some other species native to Central and South America. | Caesalpinia sappan L. (syn. Biancaea sappan (L.) Todaro (Leguminosae family) with distribution from India through Southeast Asia. |
| Product traded internationally: | Heartwood. | Heartwood. |
| World production and trade: | Data unavailable; probably very small current trade. | |
| Availability of reliable published information: | Poor. | Fair. |
Description and Dyestuff Uses
"Brazilwood" held the role as one of the most important red dyestuffs for textiles from the Middle Ages to the end of the nineteenth century. The name is derived from "fiery red" or "glowing coals". It was obtained originally from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L., a small tree which occurs in India, across Southeast Asia and southern China. On the discovery of the Americas, several other tree species were found to provide a superior red dye and these rapidly displaced the East Indian product in trade, usurping the name of "brazilwood". The country, Brazil, acquired its name through the abundance of its redwoods rather than vice versa.
The American brazilwoods have been sourced from a number of different countries and species over the years. Their precise botanical identities and relative importance in trade have been the subject of debate. Record and Hess (1943) state that at that time the major source was Haematoxylon brasiletto Karst from Nicaragua. This species is a small tree with a natural range from southern California to Colombia and Venezuela and it overlaps with logwood (H. campechianum, the source of the black-blue dye of commerce). The other main species frequently cited as major sources of brazilwood are Caesalpinia echinata Lam. [syn. Guilandina echinata (Lam.) Spreng] and C. brasilensis L. [syn. Brasiletta violacea (Mill.) Britt and Rose] but according to Record and Hess, these are native to Brazil and Haiti, respectively, and were never as important as H. brasiletto. Additional minor sources include Caesalpinia platylobaS. Wats [syn. Brasiletta platyloba (S. Wats) Britt and Rose], C. bahamensis Lam. and C. andreana Mich.
Summary of Basic Information
The American brazilwoods contain a water-soluble compound, brazilin, in their pale yellow heartwoods and this transforms on oxidation to the red dyestuff, brazilein. Shades of purple to bright red are obtained according to the mordant used in the dyeing process. East Indian sappanwood contains brazilin and another pigment, sappanin.
World Demand and Supply Trends
International demand for East Indian sappanwood as a dye source declined to insignificance by the end of the nineteenth century. Imports of "brazilwood" from Central and South America to the USA and Western Europe appear to have declined after the 1950s and the extent of current trade is not clear from trade statistics.
Production of sappanwood for dyestuff purposes in India and Southeast Asia is now minor and incidental to other uses, which include fuelwood.
There appears to be little prospect of resurrecting demand for brazilwood or sappanwood as dyestuffs, other than in small-scale, local artisanal activities.
Cultivation, Harvesting and Processing
Climate and Soil Requirements
The "brazilwoods" of Central and South America span a range of ecoclimatic conditions but the requirements for individual species are less than adequately documented owing to some confusion in their identities.
East Indian sappanwood occurs at low to medium altitudes in India and Southeast Asia with rainfall ranging from 700-4,300 mm and mean temperatures of 24-28?C. It is adaptable to clay soil and calcerous rocks but does not tolerate waterlogging.
Propagation, Husbandry and Harvesting
Little published information is available on the brazilwoods.
Sappanwood is propagated from seed, which benefits from immersion in boiling water. Cultivation is usually practised under the shade of other trees within the forest or on the forest verge and with a coppicing regime. For firewood use, coppicing is practised at intervals of 3-4 years while for dye production harvesting is carried out at 6-8 years when good heartwood formation has occurred.
Processing
For all species, the highest yields of dye are obtained by extraction of the heartwood. Heartwood is reduced to chips prior to sequential extraction in boiling water. With sappanwood, the raw material is often first reduced to a powder, moistened and is then allowed to ferment, thereby encouraging oxidation of the brazilin and the other natural pigments. The aqueous extract is concentrated prior to use as a dye. The yield of sappanwood dye has been reported as up to 20% of the heartwood on a moisture-free basis.
Other Uses
The American Caesalpinia species are described as hard and heavy timbers which are useful for construction work, pit props, etc., and find use in carpentry.
East Indian sappanwood is used in the Philippines as a fast growing coppiceable fuelwood. Elsewhere in Southeast Asia, it is frequently employed as a hedge while wood and bark are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of diarrhoea and a variety of other ailments. The fruits, like those of most Caesalpiniaspecies, are rich in tannins and may be used for treatment of leather.
Developmental Potential and Research Needs
In view of the superiority, availability and price of competing synthetic dyestuffs, it is probable that brazilwood and sappanwood dye usage will be restricted to craftwork products in future.
With sappanwood, research is merited on its comparative value with other species as a fast growing fuelwood source and on some aspects of its silviculture. Its potential as a medicinal plant beyond existing, local traditional uses are questionable.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Brazilwoods
RHANGAL GALINDO, R. (1949). Some industrial woods of Colombia. Caribbean Forester, 10(July), 179-180.
RECORD, S.J. and HESS, R.W. (1943). Timbers of the New World, New Haven, USA: Yale University Press.
ROBINSON, R. (1958). Chemistry of brazilin and haematoxylin. Bull. Soc. Chim. France, 1(Jan), 125-134.
Sappanwood
DUKE, J.A. (1981). Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. New York: Plenum Press.
FUKE, C. et al. (1985). Two aromatic compounds related to brazilin from Caesalpina sappan. Phytochemistry,24(10), 2403-2406.
LEMMENS, R.H.M.J. and WULIJARNI-SOETJIPTO, N. (1991). Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No. 3: Dye and Tannin Producing Plants. Wageningen, the Netherlands: Pudoc/Prosea.
SERRANO, R.C. (1984). Sibukao, excellent firewood. PCARRD Monitor (Los Banos, the Philippines), 12(6/7), 9-10.
TEWARI, D.N. (1994). Tropical Forest Produce. Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors.
ZERRUDO, J.V. (1985). Sibukao, a multi-purpose tree. Diamond Jubilee Professorial Lecture, University of the Philippines, Los Banos (23 pp.).
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ecology and Reproduction
GUPTA, O.P. and SHUKLA, R.P. (1991). The composition and dynamics of associated plant communities of sal plantations. Tropical Ecology, 32(2), 296-309.
JOSHI, A.P. and GUPTA, S.K. (1985). Mallotus philippensis in Garhwal Himalaya: an ecological account. Indian J. Forestry, 8(2), 134-136.
SINGHAL, R.M. and SHARMA, S.D. (1989). Phytosociological analysis of tropical forests in Doon Valley of Uttar Pradesh. J. Trop. Forestry, 5(1), 57-65.
SHUKLA, R.P. and PANDEY, U.N. (1991). On the reproductive phenology and sex ratio of Mallotus philippensis. Current Science, 61(5), 354-356.
Utilization
BRINGI, N.V. (1988). Progress in the chemistry and technology of non-traditional oilseeds. J. Oil Technologists Assoc. India, 20(1), 2-9.
LEMMENS, R.H.M.J. and WULIJARI-SOETJIPTO, N., editors. (1991). Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No. 3: Dye and Tannin Producing Plants. Wageningen, Holland: Pudoc/Prosea.
TEWARI, D.N. (1994). Tropical Forest Produce. Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors.
Chemistry and Pharmacology of the Dyestuff
BENTLEY, K. (1960). The Natural Pigments. New York: Interscience.
CROMBIE, L. et al. (1968). Constituents of kamala: isolation and structure of two new components. J. Chem. Soc., C, 265.
DEAN, F.M. (1963). Naturally Occurring Oxygen Ring Compounds. London: Butterworths.
GUJRAL, M. et al. (1960). Oral contraceptives. Pt. I. Preliminary observations on the antifertility effect of some indigenous drugs. Indian J. Medical Research, 48, 46-51.
SALUNKE, D.K. and ADSULE, R.N. (1985). Use of plants to control human fertility. Current Research Reporter, 1(2), 113-117.
A name given to several astringent substances, containing from 40 to 55 per cent. of tannin, which are obtained from the bark, wood, or fruits of various Eastern trees and shrubs. They are used in medicine, and in tanning, calico printing, and dyeing. Alsoattrib. or Comb.: catechu brown n. a brown colour produced by the use of catechu as a dye.The name was apparently first applied (in Europe) to the pale sort called also gambier n., obtained from the leaves and young shoots of Uncaria (or Nauclea) Gambir; this is the Catechu of Pharmacy ( New Sydenham Soc. Lexicon): when first brought to Europe in the 17th c. it was from its appearance believed to be an earth, and called Terra Japonica. The dark sort obtained from the wood of Acacia Catechu, is more commonly called cutch n.1; of this Pegu Catechu is a good variety. (There is doubt whether the connection with Japan assumed in the name terra japonici is not purely imaginary, and owing to the Burmese name for Acacia Catechu, sha-pin, shabin, or shaben.)
For the author, see Wallace Wattles. For other uses, see Wattle (disambiguation).
Acacia 
Senegalia greggii (syn. Acacia greggii) Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Rosids Order: Fabales Family: Fabaceae Subfamily: Mimosoideae Genus: Acacia
Mill.[1] Species
About 1,300; see list of Acaciaspecies
The range of the genus Acacia (sensu stricto).
Acacia (/əˈkeɪʃə/ or /əˈkeɪsiə/), known commonly as acacia, thorntree, whistling thorn, or wattle, is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773 based on the African species Acacia nilotica. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority ofAustralian acacias are not. All species are pod-bearing, with sap and leaves often bearing large amounts of tannins andcondensed tannins that historically found use as pharmaceuticals and preservatives. The generic name derives from ἀκακία(akakia), the name given by early Greek botanist-physician Pedanius Dioscorides (middle to late first century) to the medicinal tree A. nilotica in his book Materia Medica.[2] This name derives from the Greek word for its characteristic thorns,ἀκίς (akis; "thorn").[3] The species name nilotica was given by Linnaeus from this tree's best-known range along the Nileriver.
The genus Acacia previously contained roughly 1,300 species, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and theAmericas (see List of Acacia species). However, in 2005, the genus was divided into five separate genera under the tribe "Acacieae". The genus Acacia (sensu stricto) was retained for the majority of the Australian species and a few in tropical Asia, Madagascar, and Pacific Islands. Most of the species outside Australia, and a small number of Australian species, were reclassified into Vachellia and Senegalia. The two final genera, Acaciella and Mariosousa, each contains about a dozen species from the Americas (but see "Classification" below for ongoing debate concerning these name changes).
This article often describes acacias in the older, broader sense.
| Acacia | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Senegalia greggii (syn. Acacia greggii) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Fabales |
| Family: | Fabaceae |
| Subfamily: | Mimosoideae |
| Genus: | Acacia Mill.[1] |
| Species | |
About 1,300; see list of Acaciaspecies
| |
 | |
| The range of the genus Acacia (sensu stricto). | |
Contents
[hide]
[hide]
Classification[edit]
See also: List of Acacia species
In the over 1,300 species of Acacia, the traditional circumscription is not monophyletic. This discovery has led to the breaking up of Acacia into five genera, along with the much-debated retypification of the genus with an Australian species instead of the original African type species, an exception to traditional rules of priority that required ratification by the International Botanical Congress.[4] That decision has been controversial, and debate continues, with some taxonomists (and many other biologists) deciding to continue to use the traditional Acacia sensu lato circumscription of the genus, at least for now.[4] Such use is contrary to decisions by two consecutive International Botanical Congresses.[5][6] When the genus is divided, the traditional acacias of Africa are now treated in the genera Vachellia and Senegalia, some of the American species are placed in Acaciella and Mariosousa, and the majority of species still treated in the genus Acacia are confined to Australia.[7]
Queensland botanist Les Pedley had proposed the subgenus Phyllodineae be renamed Racosperma and published the binomial names.
In common parlance, the term "acacia" is occasionally applied to species of the genusRobinia, which also belongs in the pea family. Robinia pseudoacacia, an American species locally known as black locust, is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in the United Kingdom and throughout Europe.
Geography of Australian acacias[edit]
Acacias in Australia probably evolved their fire resistance about 2000 years ago when fossilised charcoal deposits show a large increase, indicating that fire was a factor even then.[citation needed] With no major mountain ranges or rivers to prevent their spread, the wattles began to spread all over the continent as it dried and fires became more common.[citation needed] They began to form dry, open forests with species of the genera Casuarina, Eucalyptus and Callitris (cypress-pines).
The southernmost species in the genus are Acacia dealbata (silver wattle), Acacia longifolia (coast wattle or Sydney golden wattle), Acacia mearnsii (black wattle), and Acacia melanoxylon (blackwood), reaching 43°30' S in Tasmania, Australia.[citation needed]
Australian species are usually called wattles, while African and American species tend to be known as acacias.[citation needed]
Description[edit]
The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian andPacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks (petioles) become vertically flattened in order to serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as "phyllodes". The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight since with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light as fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as Acacia glaucoptera) lack leaves or phyllodes altogether but instead possess cladodes, modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves.
The small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense, globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, or even purple (Acacia purpureopetala) or red (Acacia leprosa (Scarlet Blaze)). Acacia flowers can be distinguished from those of a large related genus, Albizia, by their stamens, which are not joined at the base. Also, unlike individual Mimosa flowers, those of Acaciahave more than ten stamens.[8]
The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches that have become short, hard, and pungent, though they sometimes represent leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the kangaroo-thorn of Australia, and Vachellia erioloba(syn. Acacia eriolobata) is the camelthorn of Africa.
Acacia seeds can be difficult to germinate. Research has found that immersing the seeds in various temperatures (usually around 80°C (176°F)) and manual seed coat chipping can improve growth to around 80%.[9]
Symbiosis[edit]
In the Central American bullthorn acacias—Vachellia sphaerocephala (syn. Acacia sphaerocephala), Vachellia cornigera(syn. Acacia cornigera), and Vachellia collinsii (syn. Acacia collinsii)—some of the spiny stipules are large, swollen and hollow. These afford shelter for several species of Pseudomyrmex ants, which feed on extra-floral nectaries on the leaf-stalk and small lipid-rich food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets called Beltian bodies. In return, the ants add protection to the plant against herbivores.[10] Some species of ants will also remove competing plants around the acacia, cutting off the offending plants' leaves with their jaws and ultimately killing them. Other associated ant species appear to do nothing to benefit their hosts.
Similar mutualisms with ants occur on Acacia trees in Africa, such as the whistling thorn acacia. The acacias provide shelter for ants in similar swollen stipules and nectar in extrafloral nectaries for their symbiotic ants, such as Crematogaster mimosae. In turn, the ants protect the plant by attacking large mammalian herbivores and stem-boring beetles that damage the plant.[11]
The predominantly herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi, which is found in Central America and Mexico, feeds on nubs at the tips of the acacia leaves, known as Beltian bodies, which contain high concentrations of protein. These nubs are produced by the acacia as part of a symbiotic relationship with certain species of ant, which also eat them.[12]
Pests[edit]
In Australia, Acacia species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetusincluding A. ligniveren. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which have been recorded feeding on Acacia include brown-tail, Endoclita malabaricus and turnip moth. The leaf-mining larvae of somebucculatricid moths also feed on Acacia; Bucculatrix agilis feeds exclusively on Vachellia horrida (syn. Acacia horrida) andBucculatrix flexuosa feeds exclusively on Vachellia nilotica (syn. Acacia nilotica).
Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals.[13]
Uses[edit]
Use as human food[edit]
Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products.
Gum[edit]
Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of Senegalia senegal, abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria.
Vachellia nilotica (syn. Acacia arabica) is the gum arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum arabic. Gum arabic is used in a wide variety of food products, including some soft drinks[14] and confections.
The ancient Egyptians used acacia gum in paints.[15]
Uses in folk medicine[edit]
Acacia species have possible uses in folk medicine. A 19th-century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species (known as grar) mixed with the root of the tacha, then boiled, as a cure for rabies.[16]
An astringent medicine high in tannins, called catechu or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from Senegalia catechu (syn. Acacia catechu), by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract.[17][18] The catechu extract from A. catechu figures in the history of chemistry in giving its name to the catechin, catechol, and catecholamine chemical families ultimately derived from it.
Ornamental uses[edit]
A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is A. dealbata (silver wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus Mimosa.
Another ornamental acacia is the fever tree. Southern European florists use A. baileyana, A. dealbata, A. pycnantha and A. retinodes as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa.[19]
Ornamental species of acacias are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security. The sharp thorns of some species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls.
Perfume[edit]
Vachellia farnesiana (syn. Acacia farnesiana) is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries.
Symbolism and ritual[edit]
The acacia is used as a symbol in Freemasonry, to represent purity and endurance of the soul, and as funerary symbolism signifying resurrection and immortality. The tree gains its importance from the description of the burial of Hiram Abiff, who provided some of the builders for King Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.[20] It is also supposed to have been the material used for Zulu warriors' iziQu (or isiKu) beads, which passed on through Sir Robert Baden-Powell to the Boy Scout movement's Wood Badge training award.
Egyptian mythology has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the tree of life, such as in the Myth of Osiris and Isis.
Several parts (mainly bark, root, and resin) of Acacia species are used to make incense for rituals. Acacia is used in incense mainly in India, Nepal, and China including in its Tibet region. Smoke from acacia bark is thought to keep demons and ghosts away and to put the gods in a good mood. Roots and resin from acacia are combined with rhododendron, acorus, cytisus, salvia, and some other components of incense. Both people and elephants like an alcoholic beverage made from acacia fruit.[21] According to Easton's Bible Dictionary, the acacia tree may be the “burning bush” (Exodus 3:2) which Moses encountered in the desert.[22] Also, when God gave Moses the instructions for building the Tabernacle, he said to "make an ark" and "a table of acacia wood" (Exodus 25:10 & 23, Revised Standard Version). Also, in the Christian tradition, Christ's crown of thorns is thought to have been woven from acacia.[23]
In Russia, Italy, and other countries, it is customary to present women with yellow mimosas (among other flowers) on International Women's Day (March 8). These "mimosas" are actually from A. dealbata (silver wattle).
Tannin[edit]
The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include A. pycnantha(golden wattle), A. decurrens (tan wattle), A. dealbata (silver wattle) and A. mearnsii (black wattle).
Black wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa and South America. Most Australian Acacia species introduced to South Africa have become an enormous problem, due to their naturally aggressive propagation.[citation needed] The pods of A. nilotica (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species, are also rich in tannin and used by tanners.
Wood[edit]
Some Acacia species are valuable as timber, such as A. melanoxylon (blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and A. omalophylla (myall wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber used for ornaments. A. seyal is thought to be the shittah-tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. According to the Book of Exodus, this was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant. A. koa from the Hawaiian Islands and A. heterophylla from Réunion are both excellent timber trees. Depending on abundance and regional culture, some Acacia species (e.g. A. fumosa) are traditionally used locally as firewoods.[24] It is also used to make homes for different animals.
Pulpwood[edit]
In Indonesia (mainly in Sumatra) and in Malaysia (mainly in Sabah), plantations of A. mangium are being established to supply pulpwood to the paper industry.
Acacia wood pulp gives high opacity and below average bulk paper. This is suitable in lightweight offset papers used for Bibles and dictionaries. It is also used in paper tissue where it improves softness.
Land reclamation[edit]
Acacias can be planted for erosion control, especially after mining or construction damage.[25]
Ecological invasion[edit]
For the same reasons it is favored as an erosion-control plant, with its easy spreading and resilience, some varieties of acacia are potentially invasive species. One of the most globally significant invasive acacias is black wattle A. mearnsii, which is taking over grasslands and abandoned agricultural areas worldwide, especially in moderate coastal and island regions where mild climate promotes its spread. Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment gives it a "high risk, score of 15" rating and it is considered one of the world's 100 most invasive species.[26] Extensive ecological studies should be performed before further introduction of acacia varieties, as this fast-growing genus, once introduced, spreads fast and is extremely difficult to eradicate.
Phytochemistry[edit]
Cyanogenic glycosides[edit]
Nineteen different species of Acacia in the Americas contain cyanogenic glycosides, which, if exposed to an enzyme which specifically splits glycosides, can releasehydrogen cyanide in the "leaves".[27] This sometimes results in the poisoning death of livestock.
If fresh plant material spontaneously produces 200 ppm or more HCN, then it is potentially toxic. This corresponds to about 7.5 μmol HCN per gram of fresh plant material. It turns out that, if acacia "leaves" lack the specific glycoside-splitting enzyme, then they may be less toxic than otherwise, even those containing significant quantities of cyanic glycosides.[28]
Some Acacia species containing cyanogens include Acacia erioloba, A. cunninghamii, A. obtusifolia, A. sieberiana, and A. sieberiana var. woodii[29]
Famous acacia[edit]
Perhaps the most famous acacia is the Arbre du Ténéré in Niger.[citation needed] The reason for the tree's fame is that it used to be the most isolated tree in the world, about 400 km (249 mi) from any other tree. The tree was knocked down by a truck driver in 1973.[citation needed]
In Nairobi, Kenya, the Thorn Tree Café is named after a Naivasha thorn tree (Acacia xanthophloea)[30] in its centre. Travelers used to pin notes to others to the thorns of the tree. The current tree is the third of the same variety.
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ Genus: Acacia Mill. – Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)
- ^ "Acacia nilotica (acacia)". Plants & Fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Archived from the original on 12 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names. 1 A-C. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8493-2675-2.
- ^ a b Gideon F. Smith & Estrela Figueiredo (2011). "Conserving Acacia Mill. with a conserved type: What happened in Melbourne?". Taxon 60 (5): 1504–1506.
- ^ Anders Backlund & Kåre Bremer (1998). "To be or not to be – principles of classification and monotypic plant families". Taxon 47 (2): 391–400.doi:10.2307/1223768. JSTOR 1223768.
- ^ Anastasia Thanukos (2009). "A name by any other tree". Evolution: Education and Outreach 2 (2): 303–309. doi:10.1007/s12052-009-0122-7.
- ^ "Wattles - genus Acacia". Australian National Herbarium. Retrieved October 24,2013.
- ^ Singh, Gurcharan (2004). Plant Systematics: An Integrated Approach. Science Publishers. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-57808-351-0.
- ^ J Clemens, PG Jones, NH Gilbert (1977). "Effect of seed treatments on germination in Acacia". Australian Journal of Botany 25 (3): 269–267.doi:10.1071/BT9770269.
- ^ Martin Heil, Sabine Greiner, Harald Meimberg, Ralf Krüger, Jean-Louis Noyer, Günther Heubl, K. Eduard Linsenmair & Wilhelm Boland (2004). "Evolutionary change from induced to constitutive expression of an indirect plant resistance".Nature 430 (6996): 205–208. Bibcode:2004Natur.430..205H.doi:10.1038/nature02703. PMID 15241414.
- ^ Palmer, T.M.; M.L. Stanton; T.P. Young; J.R. Goheen; R.M Pringle; R. Karban (January 2008). "Breakdown of an ant-plant mutualism following the loss of large herbivores from an African savanna". Science 319: 192–195.doi:10.1126/science.1151579. PMID 18187652.
- ^ Meehan, Christopher J.; Olson, Eric J.; Curry, Robert L. (21 August 2008):Exploitation of the Pseudomyrmex–Acacia mutualism by a predominantly vegetarian jumping spider (Bagheera kiplingi). The 93rd ESA Annual Meeting.
- ^ T. D. A. Forbes & B. A. Clement. "Chemistry of Acacia's from South Texas"(PDF). Texas A&M University. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2011. Retrieved June 12, 2013.
- ^ "Powerade Ion4 Sports Drink, B Vitamin Enhanced, Strawberry Lemonade". Wegmans. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ "Excerpt from A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Fifth Edition (Paperback) Amazon.com". Amazon.ca. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Richard Pankhurst, An Introduction to the Medical History of Ethiopia (Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1990), p. 97
- ^ "An OCR'd version of the US Dispensatory by Remington and Wood, 1918". Henriettesherbal.com. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ "Cutch and catechu plant origin from the Food and Agriculture (FAO) department of the United Nations. Document repository accessed November 5, 2011".
- ^ "World Wide Wattle". World Wide Wattle. 2009-09-07. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Web of Hiram (Bradford University) Craft Lectures, Third Degree, Second Section
- ^ Naturheilpraxis Fachforum (German)[dead link]
- ^ "Easton's Bible Dictionary: Bush". Eastonsbibledictionary.com. Retrieved2013-03-06.
- ^ Dictionary of Symbols.Chevalier and Gheerbrant. Penguin Reference.1996.
- ^ Maugh, T.H. II (2009-04-24). "New species of tree identified in Ethiopia". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2008-04-24.
- ^ Barr, D. A., and Atkinson, W. J. (1970). "Stabilization of coastal sands after mining". J. Soil Conserv. Serv. N.S.W. 26: 89–105.
- ^ "Acacia mearnsii (PIER species info)". Hear.org. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Cyanogenic Glycosides in Ant-Acacias of Mexico and Central America David S. Seigler, John E. Ebinger The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 32, No. 4 (December 9, 1987), pp. 499–503 doi:10.2307/3671484
- ^ Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen By Robert Hegnauer. Books.google.com. 1996-01-01. ISBN 9783764351656. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ FAO Kamal M. Ibrahim, The current state of knowledge on Prosopis juliflora...[dead link]
- ^ Jan Hemsing (1974). Old Nairobi and the New Stanley Hotel. Church, Raitt, and Associates. p. 53.
- ^ Genus: Acacia Mill. – Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)
- ^ "Acacia nilotica (acacia)". Plants & Fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Archived from the original on 12 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
- ^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names. 1 A-C. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8493-2675-2.
- ^ a b Gideon F. Smith & Estrela Figueiredo (2011). "Conserving Acacia Mill. with a conserved type: What happened in Melbourne?". Taxon 60 (5): 1504–1506.
- ^ Anders Backlund & Kåre Bremer (1998). "To be or not to be – principles of classification and monotypic plant families". Taxon 47 (2): 391–400.doi:10.2307/1223768. JSTOR 1223768.
- ^ Anastasia Thanukos (2009). "A name by any other tree". Evolution: Education and Outreach 2 (2): 303–309. doi:10.1007/s12052-009-0122-7.
- ^ "Wattles - genus Acacia". Australian National Herbarium. Retrieved October 24,2013.
- ^ Singh, Gurcharan (2004). Plant Systematics: An Integrated Approach. Science Publishers. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-57808-351-0.
- ^ J Clemens, PG Jones, NH Gilbert (1977). "Effect of seed treatments on germination in Acacia". Australian Journal of Botany 25 (3): 269–267.doi:10.1071/BT9770269.
- ^ Martin Heil, Sabine Greiner, Harald Meimberg, Ralf Krüger, Jean-Louis Noyer, Günther Heubl, K. Eduard Linsenmair & Wilhelm Boland (2004). "Evolutionary change from induced to constitutive expression of an indirect plant resistance".Nature 430 (6996): 205–208. Bibcode:2004Natur.430..205H.doi:10.1038/nature02703. PMID 15241414.
- ^ Palmer, T.M.; M.L. Stanton; T.P. Young; J.R. Goheen; R.M Pringle; R. Karban (January 2008). "Breakdown of an ant-plant mutualism following the loss of large herbivores from an African savanna". Science 319: 192–195.doi:10.1126/science.1151579. PMID 18187652.
- ^ Meehan, Christopher J.; Olson, Eric J.; Curry, Robert L. (21 August 2008):Exploitation of the Pseudomyrmex–Acacia mutualism by a predominantly vegetarian jumping spider (Bagheera kiplingi). The 93rd ESA Annual Meeting.
- ^ T. D. A. Forbes & B. A. Clement. "Chemistry of Acacia's from South Texas"(PDF). Texas A&M University. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2011. Retrieved June 12, 2013.
- ^ "Powerade Ion4 Sports Drink, B Vitamin Enhanced, Strawberry Lemonade". Wegmans. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ "Excerpt from A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Fifth Edition (Paperback) Amazon.com". Amazon.ca. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Richard Pankhurst, An Introduction to the Medical History of Ethiopia (Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1990), p. 97
- ^ "An OCR'd version of the US Dispensatory by Remington and Wood, 1918". Henriettesherbal.com. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ "Cutch and catechu plant origin from the Food and Agriculture (FAO) department of the United Nations. Document repository accessed November 5, 2011".
- ^ "World Wide Wattle". World Wide Wattle. 2009-09-07. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Web of Hiram (Bradford University) Craft Lectures, Third Degree, Second Section
- ^ Naturheilpraxis Fachforum (German)[dead link]
- ^ "Easton's Bible Dictionary: Bush". Eastonsbibledictionary.com. Retrieved2013-03-06.
- ^ Dictionary of Symbols.Chevalier and Gheerbrant. Penguin Reference.1996.
- ^ Maugh, T.H. II (2009-04-24). "New species of tree identified in Ethiopia". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2008-04-24.
- ^ Barr, D. A., and Atkinson, W. J. (1970). "Stabilization of coastal sands after mining". J. Soil Conserv. Serv. N.S.W. 26: 89–105.
- ^ "Acacia mearnsii (PIER species info)". Hear.org. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Cyanogenic Glycosides in Ant-Acacias of Mexico and Central America David S. Seigler, John E. Ebinger The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 32, No. 4 (December 9, 1987), pp. 499–503 doi:10.2307/3671484
- ^ Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen By Robert Hegnauer. Books.google.com. 1996-01-01. ISBN 9783764351656. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ FAO Kamal M. Ibrahim, The current state of knowledge on Prosopis juliflora...[dead link]
- ^ Jan Hemsing (1974). Old Nairobi and the New Stanley Hotel. Church, Raitt, and Associates. p. 53.
General references[edit]
- Clement, B.A.; Goff, C.M.; Forbes, T.D.A. (1998). "Toxic Amines and Alkaloids from Acacia rigidula". Phytochem 49 (5): 1377–1380. doi:10.1016/s0031-9422(97)01022-4.
- Shulgin, Alexander and Ann, TiHKAL the Continuation. Transform Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-9630096-9-2
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Acacia.
Wikispecies has information related to: Acacia
Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopediaarticle Acacia.
- Acacia at the Encyclopedia of Life
- World Wide Wattle
- Acacia-world
- Wayne's Word on "The Unforgettable Acacias"
- The genus Acacia and Entheogenic Tryptamines, with reference to Australian and related species, by mulga
- A description of Acacia from Pomet's 1709 reference book, History of Druggs
- Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases
- Flora identification tools from the State Herbarium of South Australia
- Tannins in Some Interrelated Wattles
- List of Acacia Species in the U.S.
- FAO Timber Properties of Various Acacia Species
- FAO Comparison of Various Acacia Species as Forage
- Long-term effects of roller chopping on antiherbivore defenses in three shrub species, Jason R. Schindlera, Timothy E. Fulbright
- Vet. Path. ResultsAFIP Wednesday Slide Conference – No. 21 February 24, 1999
- Acacia cyanophylla lindl as supplementary feed/for small stock in Libya
- Description of Acacia Morphology
- Nitrogen Fixation in Acacias
- Acacias with Cyagenic Compounds
- Acacia Alarm System
- Acacia in West African plants – A Photo Guide.
"Acacia". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
encyclopedia
For other uses, see Tree of life (disambiguation).
The concept of a tree of life has been used in biology, religion, philosophy, and mythology. A tree of life is a common motifin various world theologies, mythologies, and philosophies. It alludes to the interconnection of all life on our planet and serves as a metaphor for common descent in the evolutionary sense. The term tree of life may also be used as a synonym for sacred tree.[1]
The tree of knowledge, connecting to heaven and the underworld, and the tree of life, connecting all forms of creation, are both forms of the world tree or cosmic tree, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[2] and are portrayed in various religions and philosophies as the same tree.[3]
"Acacia". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
For other uses, see Tree of life (disambiguation).
The concept of a tree of life has been used in biology, religion, philosophy, and mythology. A tree of life is a common motifin various world theologies, mythologies, and philosophies. It alludes to the interconnection of all life on our planet and serves as a metaphor for common descent in the evolutionary sense. The term tree of life may also be used as a synonym for sacred tree.[1]
The tree of knowledge, connecting to heaven and the underworld, and the tree of life, connecting all forms of creation, are both forms of the world tree or cosmic tree, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[2] and are portrayed in various religions and philosophies as the same tree.[3]
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Religion and mythology
- 1.1 Ancient Iran
- 1.2 Ancient Egypt
- 1.3 Armenia
- 1.4 Assyria
- 1.5 Baha'i Faith
- 1.6 Buddhism
- 1.7 China
- 1.8 Christianity
- 1.9 Europe
- 1.10 Georgia
- 1.11 Germanic paganism and Norse mythology
- 1.12 Hinduism
- 1.13 Islam
- 1.14 Jewish sources
- 1.15 Mesoamerica
- 1.16 Middle East
- 1.17 North America
- 1.18 Serer religion
- 1.19 Turkic world
- 2 Biology
- 3 Popular culture
- 4 Physical "trees of life"
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
[hide]
- 1 Religion and mythology
- 1.1 Ancient Iran
- 1.2 Ancient Egypt
- 1.3 Armenia
- 1.4 Assyria
- 1.5 Baha'i Faith
- 1.6 Buddhism
- 1.7 China
- 1.8 Christianity
- 1.9 Europe
- 1.10 Georgia
- 1.11 Germanic paganism and Norse mythology
- 1.12 Hinduism
- 1.13 Islam
- 1.14 Jewish sources
- 1.15 Mesoamerica
- 1.16 Middle East
- 1.17 North America
- 1.18 Serer religion
- 1.19 Turkic world
- 2 Biology
- 3 Popular culture
- 4 Physical "trees of life"
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
Religion and mythology[edit]
Main article: Trees in mythology
Various trees of life are recounted in folklore, culture and fiction, often relating to immortality or fertility. They had their origin in religious symbolism.
Main article: Trees in mythology
Various trees of life are recounted in folklore, culture and fiction, often relating to immortality or fertility. They had their origin in religious symbolism.
Ancient Iran[edit]
In pre-Islamic Persian mythology, the Gaokerena world tree is a large, sacred Haoma tree which bears all seeds. Ahriman (Ahreman, Angremainyu) created a frog to invade the tree and destroy it, aiming to prevent all trees from growing on the earth. As a reaction, God (Ahura Mazda) created two kar fish staring at the frog to guard the tree. The two fishes are always staring at the frog and stay ready to react to it. Because Ahriman is responsible for all evil including death, while Ahura Mazda is responsible for all good (including life) the concept of world tree in Persian Mythology is very closely related to the concept of Tree of Life.
The sacred plant haoma and the drink made from it. The preparation of the drink from the plant by pounding and the drinking of it are central features of Zoroastrian ritual. Haoma is also personified as a divinity. It bestows essential vital qualities—health, fertility, husbands for maidens, even immortality. The source of the earthly haoma plant is a shining white tree that grows on a paradisiacal mountain. Sprigs of this white haoma were brought to earth by divine birds.
Haoma is the Avestan form of the Sanskrit soma. The near identity of the two in ritual significance is considered by scholars to point to a salient feature of an Indo-Iranian religion antedating Zoroastrianism.[4][5]
Another related issue in ancient mythology of Iran is the myth of Mashyа and Mashyane, two trees who were the ancestors of all living beings. This myth can be considered as a prototype for the creation myth where living beings are created by Gods (who have a human form).
In pre-Islamic Persian mythology, the Gaokerena world tree is a large, sacred Haoma tree which bears all seeds. Ahriman (Ahreman, Angremainyu) created a frog to invade the tree and destroy it, aiming to prevent all trees from growing on the earth. As a reaction, God (Ahura Mazda) created two kar fish staring at the frog to guard the tree. The two fishes are always staring at the frog and stay ready to react to it. Because Ahriman is responsible for all evil including death, while Ahura Mazda is responsible for all good (including life) the concept of world tree in Persian Mythology is very closely related to the concept of Tree of Life.
The sacred plant haoma and the drink made from it. The preparation of the drink from the plant by pounding and the drinking of it are central features of Zoroastrian ritual. Haoma is also personified as a divinity. It bestows essential vital qualities—health, fertility, husbands for maidens, even immortality. The source of the earthly haoma plant is a shining white tree that grows on a paradisiacal mountain. Sprigs of this white haoma were brought to earth by divine birds.
Haoma is the Avestan form of the Sanskrit soma. The near identity of the two in ritual significance is considered by scholars to point to a salient feature of an Indo-Iranian religion antedating Zoroastrianism.[4][5]
Another related issue in ancient mythology of Iran is the myth of Mashyа and Mashyane, two trees who were the ancestors of all living beings. This myth can be considered as a prototype for the creation myth where living beings are created by Gods (who have a human form).
Ancient Egypt[edit]
In Egyptian mythology, in the Ennead system of Heliopolis, the first couple, apart from Shu and Tefnut (moisture and dryness) and Geb and Nuit (earth and sky), are Isis and Osiris. They were said to have emerged from the acacia tree of Iusaaset, which the Egyptians considered the tree of life, referring to it as the "tree in which life and death are enclosed." Acacia trees contain DMT, a psychedelic drug associated with spiritual experiences. A much later myth relates how Set killed Osiris, putting him in a coffin, and throwing it into the Nile, the coffin becoming embedded in the base of a tamarisk tree.[6]
The Egyptians' Holy Sycamore also stood on the threshold of life and death, connecting the two worlds.
_-_TIMEA.jpg)
In Egyptian mythology, in the Ennead system of Heliopolis, the first couple, apart from Shu and Tefnut (moisture and dryness) and Geb and Nuit (earth and sky), are Isis and Osiris. They were said to have emerged from the acacia tree of Iusaaset, which the Egyptians considered the tree of life, referring to it as the "tree in which life and death are enclosed." Acacia trees contain DMT, a psychedelic drug associated with spiritual experiences. A much later myth relates how Set killed Osiris, putting him in a coffin, and throwing it into the Nile, the coffin becoming embedded in the base of a tamarisk tree.[6]
The Egyptians' Holy Sycamore also stood on the threshold of life and death, connecting the two worlds.
Armenia[edit]
In ancient Armenia, the Tree of Life (Կենաց Ծառ) was a religious symbol and was drawn on walls of fortresses and carved on the armor of warriors. The branches of the tree were equally divided on the right and left sides of the stem, with each branch having one leaf, and one leaf on the apex of the tree. Servants stood on each side of the tree with one of their hands up as if they are taking care of the tree.
In ancient Armenia, the Tree of Life (Կենաց Ծառ) was a religious symbol and was drawn on walls of fortresses and carved on the armor of warriors. The branches of the tree were equally divided on the right and left sides of the stem, with each branch having one leaf, and one leaf on the apex of the tree. Servants stood on each side of the tree with one of their hands up as if they are taking care of the tree.
Assyria[edit]
The Assyrian Tree of Life was represented by a series of nodes and criss-crossing lines. It was apparently an important religious symbol, often attended to by eagle-headed gods and priests, or the King. Assyrilogists have not reached consensus as to the meaning of this symbol. It is multi-valent. The name "Tree of Life" has been attributed to it by modern scholarship; it is not used in the Assyrian sources. In fact, no textual evidence pertaining to the symbol is known to exist.
The Assyrian Tree of Life was represented by a series of nodes and criss-crossing lines. It was apparently an important religious symbol, often attended to by eagle-headed gods and priests, or the King. Assyrilogists have not reached consensus as to the meaning of this symbol. It is multi-valent. The name "Tree of Life" has been attributed to it by modern scholarship; it is not used in the Assyrian sources. In fact, no textual evidence pertaining to the symbol is known to exist.
Baha'i Faith[edit]
See also: Sadratu'l-Muntahá
The concept of the tree of life appears in the writings of the Baha'i Faith, where it can refer to the Manifestation of God, a great teacher who appears to humanity from age to age. An example of this can be found in the Hidden Words ofBahá'u'lláh:[7][8]
A distinction has been made between the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The latter represents the physical world with its opposites, such as good and evil and light and dark. In a different context from the one above, the tree of life represents the spiritual realm, where this duality does not exist.[11]
See also: Sadratu'l-Muntahá
The concept of the tree of life appears in the writings of the Baha'i Faith, where it can refer to the Manifestation of God, a great teacher who appears to humanity from age to age. An example of this can be found in the Hidden Words ofBahá'u'lláh:[7][8]
A distinction has been made between the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The latter represents the physical world with its opposites, such as good and evil and light and dark. In a different context from the one above, the tree of life represents the spiritual realm, where this duality does not exist.[11]
Buddhism[edit]
The Bo tree, also called Bodhi tree, according to Buddhist tradition, is the pipal (Ficus religiosa) under which the Buddha sat when he attained Enlightenment (Bodhi) at Bodh Gaya (near Gaya, west-central Bihar state, India). A living pipal at Anuradhapura, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), is said to have grown from a cutting from the Bo tree sent to that city by King Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.[12]
According to Tibetan tradition when Buddha went to the holy Lake Manasorovar along with 500 monks, he took with him the energy of Prayaga Raj. Upon his arrival, he installed the energy of Prayaga Raj near Lake Manasorovar, at a place now known as Prayang. Then he planted the seed of this eternal banyan tree next to Mt. Kailash on a mountain known as the "Palace of Medicine Buddha".[13]
The Bo tree, also called Bodhi tree, according to Buddhist tradition, is the pipal (Ficus religiosa) under which the Buddha sat when he attained Enlightenment (Bodhi) at Bodh Gaya (near Gaya, west-central Bihar state, India). A living pipal at Anuradhapura, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), is said to have grown from a cutting from the Bo tree sent to that city by King Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.[12]
According to Tibetan tradition when Buddha went to the holy Lake Manasorovar along with 500 monks, he took with him the energy of Prayaga Raj. Upon his arrival, he installed the energy of Prayaga Raj near Lake Manasorovar, at a place now known as Prayang. Then he planted the seed of this eternal banyan tree next to Mt. Kailash on a mountain known as the "Palace of Medicine Buddha".[13]
China[edit]
See also: Fusang
In Chinese mythology, a carving of a Tree of Life depicts a phoenix and a dragon; the dragon often represents immortality. A Taoist story tells of a tree that produces a peach every three thousand years. The one who eats the fruit receives immortality.
An archaeological discovery in the 1990s was of a sacrificial pit at Sanxingdui in Sichuan, China. Dating from about 1200 BCE, it contained three bronze trees, one of them 4 meters high. At the base was a dragon, and fruit hanging from the lower branches. At the top is a strange bird-like (phoenix) creature with claws. Also found in Sichuan, from the late Han dynasty (c 25 – 220 CE), is another tree of life. The ceramic base is guarded by a horned beast with wings. The leaves of the tree are coins and people. At the apex is a bird with coins and the Sun.
See also: Fusang
In Chinese mythology, a carving of a Tree of Life depicts a phoenix and a dragon; the dragon often represents immortality. A Taoist story tells of a tree that produces a peach every three thousand years. The one who eats the fruit receives immortality.
An archaeological discovery in the 1990s was of a sacrificial pit at Sanxingdui in Sichuan, China. Dating from about 1200 BCE, it contained three bronze trees, one of them 4 meters high. At the base was a dragon, and fruit hanging from the lower branches. At the top is a strange bird-like (phoenix) creature with claws. Also found in Sichuan, from the late Han dynasty (c 25 – 220 CE), is another tree of life. The ceramic base is guarded by a horned beast with wings. The leaves of the tree are coins and people. At the apex is a bird with coins and the Sun.
Christianity[edit]
In Catholic Christianity, the Tree of Life represents the immaculate state of humanity free from corruption and Original Sin before the Fall. Pope Benedict XVI has said that "the Cross is the true tree of life." [14] Saint Bonaventure taught that the medicinal fruit of the Tree of Life is Christ himself.[15] Saint Albert the Great taught that the Eucharist, the Body and Blood of Christ, is the Fruit of the Tree of Life.[16]
In Eastern Christianity the tree of life is the love of God.[17]
In Catholic Christianity, the Tree of Life represents the immaculate state of humanity free from corruption and Original Sin before the Fall. Pope Benedict XVI has said that "the Cross is the true tree of life." [14] Saint Bonaventure taught that the medicinal fruit of the Tree of Life is Christ himself.[15] Saint Albert the Great taught that the Eucharist, the Body and Blood of Christ, is the Fruit of the Tree of Life.[16]
In Eastern Christianity the tree of life is the love of God.[17]
Latter Day Saint movement[edit]
Main article: Tree of life vision
The tree of life appears in the Book of Mormon in a revelation to Lehi (see 1 Nephi 8:10). It is symbolic of the love of God (see 1 Nephi 11:21-23). Its fruit is described as "most precious and most desirable above all other fruits," which "is the greatest of all the gifts of God" (see 1 Nephi 15:36). In another scriptural book, salvation is called "the greatest of all the gifts of God" (see Doctrine and Covenants 6:13). In the same book eternal life is also called the "greatest of all the gifts of God" (see Doctrine and Covenants 14:7). Because of these references, the tree of life and its fruit is sometimes understood to be symbolic of salvation and post-mortal existence in the presence of God and his love.
Main article: Tree of life vision
The tree of life appears in the Book of Mormon in a revelation to Lehi (see 1 Nephi 8:10). It is symbolic of the love of God (see 1 Nephi 11:21-23). Its fruit is described as "most precious and most desirable above all other fruits," which "is the greatest of all the gifts of God" (see 1 Nephi 15:36). In another scriptural book, salvation is called "the greatest of all the gifts of God" (see Doctrine and Covenants 6:13). In the same book eternal life is also called the "greatest of all the gifts of God" (see Doctrine and Covenants 14:7). Because of these references, the tree of life and its fruit is sometimes understood to be symbolic of salvation and post-mortal existence in the presence of God and his love.
Swedenborgianism[edit]
According to Swedenborgianism, the first twelve chapters of Genesis are a symbolic retelling of ancient truths. In his Arcana Coelestia,[18] Emanuel Swedenborg(1688–1772) expounded on the symbolism and underlying spiritual meaning of both Genesis and Exodus, and the symbolism regarding the tree of life.
According to Swedenborgianism, the first twelve chapters of Genesis are a symbolic retelling of ancient truths. In his Arcana Coelestia,[18] Emanuel Swedenborg(1688–1772) expounded on the symbolism and underlying spiritual meaning of both Genesis and Exodus, and the symbolism regarding the tree of life.
Europe[edit]
In Dictionaire Mytho-Hermetiqe (Paris, 1737), Antoine-Joseph Pernety, a famous alchemist, identified the Tree of Life with the Elixir of Life and the Philosopher's Stone.
In Eden in the East (1998), Stephen Oppenheimer suggests that a tree-worshipping culture arose in Indonesia and was diffused by the so-called "Younger Dryas" event of c. 8000 BCE, when the sea level rose. This culture reached China (Szechuan), then India and the Middle East. Finally the Finno-Ugaritic strand of this diffusion spread through Russia toFinland where the Norse myth of Yggdrasil took root.
In Dictionaire Mytho-Hermetiqe (Paris, 1737), Antoine-Joseph Pernety, a famous alchemist, identified the Tree of Life with the Elixir of Life and the Philosopher's Stone.
In Eden in the East (1998), Stephen Oppenheimer suggests that a tree-worshipping culture arose in Indonesia and was diffused by the so-called "Younger Dryas" event of c. 8000 BCE, when the sea level rose. This culture reached China (Szechuan), then India and the Middle East. Finally the Finno-Ugaritic strand of this diffusion spread through Russia toFinland where the Norse myth of Yggdrasil took root.
Georgia[edit]
Germanic paganism and Norse mythology[edit]
In Germanic paganism, trees played (and, in the form of reconstructive Heathenry and Germanic Neopaganism, continue to play) a prominent role, appearing in various aspects of surviving texts and possibly in the name of gods.
The tree of life appears in Norse religion as Yggdrasil, the world tree, a massive tree (sometimes considered a yew or ash tree) with extensive lore surrounding it. Perhaps related to Yggdrasil, accounts have survived of Germanic Tribes' honouring sacred trees within their societies. Examples include Thor's Oak, sacred groves, the Sacred tree at Uppsala, and the wooden Irminsul pillar. In Norse Mythology, the apples from Iðunn's ash box provide immortality for the gods.
In Germanic paganism, trees played (and, in the form of reconstructive Heathenry and Germanic Neopaganism, continue to play) a prominent role, appearing in various aspects of surviving texts and possibly in the name of gods.
The tree of life appears in Norse religion as Yggdrasil, the world tree, a massive tree (sometimes considered a yew or ash tree) with extensive lore surrounding it. Perhaps related to Yggdrasil, accounts have survived of Germanic Tribes' honouring sacred trees within their societies. Examples include Thor's Oak, sacred groves, the Sacred tree at Uppsala, and the wooden Irminsul pillar. In Norse Mythology, the apples from Iðunn's ash box provide immortality for the gods.
Hinduism[edit]
The Eternal Banyan Tree (Akshaya Vata) is located on the bank of the Yamuna inside the courtyard of Allahabad Fort near the confluence of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers in Allahabad. The eternal and divine nature of this tree has been documented at length in the scriptures.[citation needed]
During the cyclic destruction of creation when the whole earth was enveloped by waters, akshaya vata remained unaffected. It is on the leaves of this tree that Lord Krishna rested in the form of a baby when land was no longer visible. And it is here that the immortal sage, Markandeya, received the cosmic vision of the Lord. It is under this tree that Buddha meditates eternally. Legend also has it that the Bodi tree at Gaya is a manifestation of this tree.
The Eternal Banyan Tree (Akshaya Vata) is located on the bank of the Yamuna inside the courtyard of Allahabad Fort near the confluence of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers in Allahabad. The eternal and divine nature of this tree has been documented at length in the scriptures.[citation needed]
During the cyclic destruction of creation when the whole earth was enveloped by waters, akshaya vata remained unaffected. It is on the leaves of this tree that Lord Krishna rested in the form of a baby when land was no longer visible. And it is here that the immortal sage, Markandeya, received the cosmic vision of the Lord. It is under this tree that Buddha meditates eternally. Legend also has it that the Bodi tree at Gaya is a manifestation of this tree.
Islam[edit]
Main article: Quranic tree of life
See also: Sidrat al-Muntaha
The "Tree of Immortality" (Arabic: شجرة الخلود) is the tree of life motif as it appears in the Quran. It is also alluded to in hadiths and tafsir. Unlike the biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, also called the tree of immortality, which Allah specifically forbade to Adam and Eve.[19][20] Satan, disguised as a serpent, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, thus disobeying Allah.[21] The hadiths also speak about other trees in heaven.[22]
Main article: Quranic tree of life
See also: Sidrat al-Muntaha
The "Tree of Immortality" (Arabic: شجرة الخلود) is the tree of life motif as it appears in the Quran. It is also alluded to in hadiths and tafsir. Unlike the biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, also called the tree of immortality, which Allah specifically forbade to Adam and Eve.[19][20] Satan, disguised as a serpent, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, thus disobeying Allah.[21] The hadiths also speak about other trees in heaven.[22]
Jewish sources[edit]
Main articles: Etz Chaim and Biblical tree of life
Etz Chaim, Hebrew for "tree of life," is a common term used in Judaism. The expression, found in the Book of Proverbs, is figuratively applied to the Torah itself. Etz Chaim is also a common name for yeshivas and synagogues as well as for works of Rabbinic literature. It is also used to describe each of the wooden poles to which the parchment of a Sefer Torah is attached.
The tree of life is mentioned in the Book of Genesis; it is distinct from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. After Adam disobeyed God by eating fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, he was driven out of the garden of Eden. Remaining in the garden, however, was the tree of life. To prevent the man's access to this tree in the future, Cherubims with a flaming sword were placed at the east of the garden. (Genesis 3:22-24)
In the Book of Proverbs, the tree of life is associated with wisdom: "[Wisdom] is a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her, and happy [is every one] that retaineth her." (Proverbs 3:13-18) In 15:4 the tree of life is associated with calmness: "A soothing tongue is a tree of life; but perverseness therein is a wound to the spirit."[25]
The Book of Enoch, generally considered non-canonical, states that in the time of the great judgment God will give all those whose names are in the Book of Lifefruit to eat from the Tree of Life.
Main articles: Etz Chaim and Biblical tree of life
Etz Chaim, Hebrew for "tree of life," is a common term used in Judaism. The expression, found in the Book of Proverbs, is figuratively applied to the Torah itself. Etz Chaim is also a common name for yeshivas and synagogues as well as for works of Rabbinic literature. It is also used to describe each of the wooden poles to which the parchment of a Sefer Torah is attached.
The tree of life is mentioned in the Book of Genesis; it is distinct from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. After Adam disobeyed God by eating fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, he was driven out of the garden of Eden. Remaining in the garden, however, was the tree of life. To prevent the man's access to this tree in the future, Cherubims with a flaming sword were placed at the east of the garden. (Genesis 3:22-24)
In the Book of Proverbs, the tree of life is associated with wisdom: "[Wisdom] is a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her, and happy [is every one] that retaineth her." (Proverbs 3:13-18) In 15:4 the tree of life is associated with calmness: "A soothing tongue is a tree of life; but perverseness therein is a wound to the spirit."[25]
The Book of Enoch, generally considered non-canonical, states that in the time of the great judgment God will give all those whose names are in the Book of Lifefruit to eat from the Tree of Life.
Kabbalah[edit]
Main articles: Tree of life in Kabbalah and Sephirot
Jewish mysticism depicts the Tree of Life in the form of ten interconnected nodes, as the central symbol of the Kabbalah. It comprises the tenSephirot powers in the Divine realm. The panentheistic and anthropomorphic emphasis of this emanationist theology interpreted the Torah, Jewish observance, and the purpose of Creation as the symbolic esoteric drama of unification in the Sephirot, restoring harmony to Creation. From the time of the Renaissance onwards, Jewish Kabbalah became incorporated as an important tradition in non-Jewish Western culture, first through its adoption by Christian Cabala, and continuing in Western esotericism occult Hermetic Qabalah. These adapted the Judaic Kabbalah Tree of Life syncretically by associating it with other religious traditions, esoteric theologies, and magical practices.
Main articles: Tree of life in Kabbalah and Sephirot
Jewish mysticism depicts the Tree of Life in the form of ten interconnected nodes, as the central symbol of the Kabbalah. It comprises the tenSephirot powers in the Divine realm. The panentheistic and anthropomorphic emphasis of this emanationist theology interpreted the Torah, Jewish observance, and the purpose of Creation as the symbolic esoteric drama of unification in the Sephirot, restoring harmony to Creation. From the time of the Renaissance onwards, Jewish Kabbalah became incorporated as an important tradition in non-Jewish Western culture, first through its adoption by Christian Cabala, and continuing in Western esotericism occult Hermetic Qabalah. These adapted the Judaic Kabbalah Tree of Life syncretically by associating it with other religious traditions, esoteric theologies, and magical practices.
Mesoamerica[edit]
Main article: Mesoamerican world tree
The concept of world trees is a prevalent motif in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cosmologies and iconography. World trees embodied the fourcardinal directions, which represented also the fourfold nature of a central world tree, a symbolic axis mundi connecting the planes of the Underworld and the sky with that of the terrestrial world.[26]
Depictions of world trees, both in their directional and central aspects, are found in the art and mythological traditions of cultures such as theMaya, Aztec, Izapan, Mixtec, Olmec, and others, dating to at least the Mid/Late Formative periods of Mesoamerican chronology. Among the Maya, the central world tree was conceived as or represented by a ceiba tree, and is known variously as a wacah chan or yax imix che, depending on the Mayan language.[27] The trunk of the tree could also be represented by an upright caiman, whose skin evokes the tree's spiny trunk.[26]
Directional world trees are also associated with the four Yearbearers in Mesoamerican calendars, and the directional colors and deities.Mesoamerican codices which have this association outlined include the Dresden, Borgia and Fejérváry-Mayer codices.[26] It is supposed that Mesoamerican sites and ceremonial centers frequently had actual trees planted at each of the four cardinal directions, representing the quadripartite concept.
Main article: Mesoamerican world tree
The concept of world trees is a prevalent motif in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cosmologies and iconography. World trees embodied the fourcardinal directions, which represented also the fourfold nature of a central world tree, a symbolic axis mundi connecting the planes of the Underworld and the sky with that of the terrestrial world.[26]
Depictions of world trees, both in their directional and central aspects, are found in the art and mythological traditions of cultures such as theMaya, Aztec, Izapan, Mixtec, Olmec, and others, dating to at least the Mid/Late Formative periods of Mesoamerican chronology. Among the Maya, the central world tree was conceived as or represented by a ceiba tree, and is known variously as a wacah chan or yax imix che, depending on the Mayan language.[27] The trunk of the tree could also be represented by an upright caiman, whose skin evokes the tree's spiny trunk.[26]
Directional world trees are also associated with the four Yearbearers in Mesoamerican calendars, and the directional colors and deities.Mesoamerican codices which have this association outlined include the Dresden, Borgia and Fejérváry-Mayer codices.[26] It is supposed that Mesoamerican sites and ceremonial centers frequently had actual trees planted at each of the four cardinal directions, representing the quadripartite concept.
Middle East[edit]
The Epic of Gilgamesh is a similar quest for immortality. In Mesopotamian mythology, Etana searches for a 'plant of birth' to provide him with a son. This has a solid provenance of antiquity, being found in cylinder seals from Akkad (2390–2249 BCE).
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights has a story, 'The Tale of Buluqiya', in which the hero searches for immortality and finds a paradise with jewel-encrusted trees. Nearby is a Fountain of Youth guarded by Al-Khidr. Unable to defeat the guard, Buluqiya has to return empty-handed.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is a similar quest for immortality. In Mesopotamian mythology, Etana searches for a 'plant of birth' to provide him with a son. This has a solid provenance of antiquity, being found in cylinder seals from Akkad (2390–2249 BCE).
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights has a story, 'The Tale of Buluqiya', in which the hero searches for immortality and finds a paradise with jewel-encrusted trees. Nearby is a Fountain of Youth guarded by Al-Khidr. Unable to defeat the guard, Buluqiya has to return empty-handed.
North America[edit]
In a myth passed down among the Iroquois, The World on the Turtle's Back, explains the origin of the land in which a tree of life is described. According to the myth, it is found in the heavens, where the first humans lived, until a pregnant woman fell and landed in an endless sea. Saved by a giant turtle from drowning, she formed the world on its back by planting bark taken from the tree.
The tree of life motif is present in the traditional Ojibway cosmology and traditions. It is sometimes described as Grandmother Cedar, or Nookomis Giizhig inAnishinaabemowin.
In the book Black Elk Speaks, Black Elk, an Oglala Lakota (Sioux) wičháša wakȟáŋ (medicine man and holy man), describes his vision in which after dancing around a dying tree that has never bloomed he is transported to the other world (spirit world) where he meets wise elders, 12 men and 12 women. The elders tell Black Elk that they will bring him to meet "Our Father, the two-legged chief" and bring him to the center of a hoop where he sees the tree in full leaf and bloom and the "chief" standing against the tree. Coming out of his trance he hopes to see that the earthly tree has bloomed, but it is dead.[29]
In a myth passed down among the Iroquois, The World on the Turtle's Back, explains the origin of the land in which a tree of life is described. According to the myth, it is found in the heavens, where the first humans lived, until a pregnant woman fell and landed in an endless sea. Saved by a giant turtle from drowning, she formed the world on its back by planting bark taken from the tree.
The tree of life motif is present in the traditional Ojibway cosmology and traditions. It is sometimes described as Grandmother Cedar, or Nookomis Giizhig inAnishinaabemowin.
In the book Black Elk Speaks, Black Elk, an Oglala Lakota (Sioux) wičháša wakȟáŋ (medicine man and holy man), describes his vision in which after dancing around a dying tree that has never bloomed he is transported to the other world (spirit world) where he meets wise elders, 12 men and 12 women. The elders tell Black Elk that they will bring him to meet "Our Father, the two-legged chief" and bring him to the center of a hoop where he sees the tree in full leaf and bloom and the "chief" standing against the tree. Coming out of his trance he hopes to see that the earthly tree has bloomed, but it is dead.[29]
Serer religion[edit]
In Serer religion, the tree of life as a religious concept forms the basis of Serer cosmogony. Trees were the first things created on Earth by the supreme being Roog(or Koox among the Cangin). In the competing versions of the Serer creation myth, the Somb (Prosopis africana) and the Saas tree (acacia albida) are both viewed as trees of life.[30] However, the prevailing view is that, the Somb was the first tree on Earth and the progenitor of plant life.[30][31] The Somb was also used in theSerer tumuli and burial chambers, many of which had survived for more than a thousand years.[30] Thus, Somb is not only the Tree of Life in Serer society, but the symbol of immortality.[30]
In Serer religion, the tree of life as a religious concept forms the basis of Serer cosmogony. Trees were the first things created on Earth by the supreme being Roog(or Koox among the Cangin). In the competing versions of the Serer creation myth, the Somb (Prosopis africana) and the Saas tree (acacia albida) are both viewed as trees of life.[30] However, the prevailing view is that, the Somb was the first tree on Earth and the progenitor of plant life.[30][31] The Somb was also used in theSerer tumuli and burial chambers, many of which had survived for more than a thousand years.[30] Thus, Somb is not only the Tree of Life in Serer society, but the symbol of immortality.[30]
Turkic world[edit]
The World Tree or Tree of Life is a central symbol in Turkic mythology. The blue sky around the tree reflects the peaceful nature of the country and the red ring that surrounds all of the elements symbolizes the ancient faith of rebirth, growth and development of the Turkic peoples.
The World Tree or Tree of Life is a central symbol in Turkic mythology. The blue sky around the tree reflects the peaceful nature of the country and the red ring that surrounds all of the elements symbolizes the ancient faith of rebirth, growth and development of the Turkic peoples.
Biology[edit]
See also: Tree of life in biology and Phylogenetic tree
The tree of life is a metaphor describing the relationship of all life on Earth in an evolutionary context.[32] Charles Darwintalked about envisioning evolution as a "tangled bank" in On the Origin of Species; however, the book's sole illustration is of a branched diagram that is very tree-like.
The evolutionary relationships of the tree of life were refined using genetic data by the American microbiologist Carl Woese, the discoverer of the domain Archaea and a pioneer in molecular (genetic) methods in evolutionary biology. In February 2009, BBC One broadcast an animated, interactive tree of life as part of its "Darwin Season."
The Tree of Life Web Project is an ongoing Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity, produced by biologists from around the world. Each page contains information about one group of organisms and is organized according to a branched tree-like form, thus showing relationships between organisms and groups of organisms.
The neuroanatomical term arbor vitae (tree of life) describes the branching pattern between the cortical grey matter and subcortical white matter of the cerebellum.
See also: Tree of life in biology and Phylogenetic tree
The tree of life is a metaphor describing the relationship of all life on Earth in an evolutionary context.[32] Charles Darwintalked about envisioning evolution as a "tangled bank" in On the Origin of Species; however, the book's sole illustration is of a branched diagram that is very tree-like.
The evolutionary relationships of the tree of life were refined using genetic data by the American microbiologist Carl Woese, the discoverer of the domain Archaea and a pioneer in molecular (genetic) methods in evolutionary biology. In February 2009, BBC One broadcast an animated, interactive tree of life as part of its "Darwin Season."
The Tree of Life Web Project is an ongoing Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity, produced by biologists from around the world. Each page contains information about one group of organisms and is organized according to a branched tree-like form, thus showing relationships between organisms and groups of organisms.
The neuroanatomical term arbor vitae (tree of life) describes the branching pattern between the cortical grey matter and subcortical white matter of the cerebellum.
Popular culture[edit]
Art and architecture[edit]
A 2½ story high "Tree of Life" sculpture by Wisconsin artist Nancy Metz White was installed in Mitchell Boulevard Park in Milwaukee in 2002. The tree is made of brightly painted welded steel and forge flashings recycled from Milwaukee heavy industry.[citation needed]
Austrian symbolist artist Gustav Klimt portrayed his version of the tree of life in his painting, The Tree of Life, Stoclet Frieze. This iconic painting later inspired the external facade of the "New Residence Hall" (also called the "Tree House"), a colorful 21-story student residence hall at Massachusetts College of Art and Design inBoston, Massachusetts.[34]
Contemporary Welsh artist Jen Delyth created a Celtic Tree of Life symbol, in part based on ancient Celtic veneration of trees and traditional Celtic designs.[citation needed]
A 2½ story high "Tree of Life" sculpture by Wisconsin artist Nancy Metz White was installed in Mitchell Boulevard Park in Milwaukee in 2002. The tree is made of brightly painted welded steel and forge flashings recycled from Milwaukee heavy industry.[citation needed]
Austrian symbolist artist Gustav Klimt portrayed his version of the tree of life in his painting, The Tree of Life, Stoclet Frieze. This iconic painting later inspired the external facade of the "New Residence Hall" (also called the "Tree House"), a colorful 21-story student residence hall at Massachusetts College of Art and Design inBoston, Massachusetts.[34]
Contemporary Welsh artist Jen Delyth created a Celtic Tree of Life symbol, in part based on ancient Celtic veneration of trees and traditional Celtic designs.[citation needed]
Music[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
In their album Emissaries the black metal Melechesh make a reference to the Tree of Life in their song "Touching the Spheres of Sephiroth."
American rock band O.A.R. featured a tree of life both on the cover art and on the actual c.d. for the album In Between Now and Then
Double album "Bath"/"Leaving Your Body Map" by avant-garde metal band maudlin of the Well was constructed based upon a parallel qabalistic Tree of Life structure.
The double album Axis Mutatis by the electronic group The Shamen contains in some limited editions the instrumental album "Arbor Bona Arbor Mala." The title refers to the tree of life, the ancient symbol found in virtually all Shamanic cultures, linking the underworld with the earth and the heavens. Also, on the cover of Axis Mutatis appears a representation of the tree of life by William Latham.
In Korean boy band, EXO's Music Video MAMA, the twelve forces (EXO's members) will be the one to restore the tree of life.
Rapper Ab-Soul uses the tree of life as the cover of his Control System album
 | This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
In their album Emissaries the black metal Melechesh make a reference to the Tree of Life in their song "Touching the Spheres of Sephiroth."
American rock band O.A.R. featured a tree of life both on the cover art and on the actual c.d. for the album In Between Now and Then
Double album "Bath"/"Leaving Your Body Map" by avant-garde metal band maudlin of the Well was constructed based upon a parallel qabalistic Tree of Life structure.
The double album Axis Mutatis by the electronic group The Shamen contains in some limited editions the instrumental album "Arbor Bona Arbor Mala." The title refers to the tree of life, the ancient symbol found in virtually all Shamanic cultures, linking the underworld with the earth and the heavens. Also, on the cover of Axis Mutatis appears a representation of the tree of life by William Latham.
In Korean boy band, EXO's Music Video MAMA, the twelve forces (EXO's members) will be the one to restore the tree of life.
Rapper Ab-Soul uses the tree of life as the cover of his Control System album
Fiction[edit]
Literature[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
- In George Herbert's poem The Sacrifice (part of The Temple, 1633), the Tree of Life is the rood on which Jesus Christ was crucified.
- In C. S. Lewis' Chronicles of Narnia, the Tree of Life plays a role, especially in the sixth published book (the first in the in-world chronology) The Magician's Nephew
- In Robert Jordan' The Wheel of Time the Tree of Life – "Avendesora" – as the last of its kind plays a pivotal role. This tree also linked to the Buddhist "Bodhi" tree, beneath which the Buddha attained Nirvana
- "Tree of Life" is the name of a plant in Larry Niven's Known Space novels that, when consumed by Pak Breeders at a certain age, transforms them into Pak Protectors.
- In the Roger Zelazny's 1978 novel The Chronicles of Amber: The Courts of Chaos prince Corwin encounters Ygg (a nick from Yggdrasil), a tree who speaks and is planted on the border between Order and Chaos, between Amber and Courts of Chaos
- In The Sea of Trolls written by Nancy Farmer, the Tree of Life (Yggdrasil) is a place holding magical powers.
- The World Trees in Rhapsody: Child of Blood, the first novel in Elizabeth Haydon's The Symphony of Ages clearly evokes this.
| This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
- In George Herbert's poem The Sacrifice (part of The Temple, 1633), the Tree of Life is the rood on which Jesus Christ was crucified.
- In C. S. Lewis' Chronicles of Narnia, the Tree of Life plays a role, especially in the sixth published book (the first in the in-world chronology) The Magician's Nephew
- In Robert Jordan' The Wheel of Time the Tree of Life – "Avendesora" – as the last of its kind plays a pivotal role. This tree also linked to the Buddhist "Bodhi" tree, beneath which the Buddha attained Nirvana
- "Tree of Life" is the name of a plant in Larry Niven's Known Space novels that, when consumed by Pak Breeders at a certain age, transforms them into Pak Protectors.
- In the Roger Zelazny's 1978 novel The Chronicles of Amber: The Courts of Chaos prince Corwin encounters Ygg (a nick from Yggdrasil), a tree who speaks and is planted on the border between Order and Chaos, between Amber and Courts of Chaos
- In The Sea of Trolls written by Nancy Farmer, the Tree of Life (Yggdrasil) is a place holding magical powers.
- The World Trees in Rhapsody: Child of Blood, the first novel in Elizabeth Haydon's The Symphony of Ages clearly evokes this.
Video games[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
- In the 2014 video game "Hotaru no Nikki", a plant structure functioning as a Tree of Life seems to have kept alive or revived the original Mion's spirit and later, clone Mion's spirit as well after her physical body death.
- The Norse Tree of Life, Yggdrasil, is either featured or referenced in many games, including those of the Tales RPG-series, the 2002 video game Wild Arms 3and the 2008 video game Too Human.
- In the Atari 2600 game Swordquest: Fireworld, the map of the game world is patterned after the Kabbalah Tree of Life.
- In the 1997 video game Breath of Fire III, Yggdrasil, overseer of the world's forests, features a minor role. The mutant plant Peco, a party member, becomes able to channel Yggdrasil after a time skip of several years, during which Peco made extended visits to Yggdrasil.
- In the 2002 video game Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, a Tree of Life is the central building of the Night Elf race.
- In the Etrian Odyssey series, a great tree named Yggdrasil is present in all four games, serving as a major plot device to the story.
- In the 2007 video game Dragoneer's Aria, The Great Spirit guards a World Tree.
- In the 2008 video game Prince of Persia, a gigantic, ancient tree in the middle of the desert is used to keep the evil deity Ahriman sealed in a temple at its trunk. This game's story heavily borrows from Zoroastrianism.
- In the 2009 video game Uncharted 2: Among Thieves, the Tree of Life grows within the city of Shambala, and the sap or fossilized resin from the tree is seen to be consumed by the inhabitants of the city. This in turn grants the user incredible regenerative abilities, strength, increased height and possible biological immortality. The sap from the tree represents the Cintamani Stone of Buddhist mythology, a giant raw sapphire with supposed wish-fulfilling properties.
- In the 2009 video game Dragon Quest IX, the player must harvest fyggs from Yggdrasil, the World Tree, to attain passage into the realm of the Almighty.
- In the 2010 video game Darksiders, the Tree of Life is located in Eden where War (a Horseman of the Apocalypse) sees the future and a way to defeat Abaddon The Destroyer. The Tree of Life gives War the Armageddon Blade needed to kill him.
- In the 2012 video game Darksiders II, the Tree of Life is a gateway that connects all the realms of existence, allowing The Horseman Death to travel to different maps within the game.
| This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
- In the 2014 video game "Hotaru no Nikki", a plant structure functioning as a Tree of Life seems to have kept alive or revived the original Mion's spirit and later, clone Mion's spirit as well after her physical body death.
- The Norse Tree of Life, Yggdrasil, is either featured or referenced in many games, including those of the Tales RPG-series, the 2002 video game Wild Arms 3and the 2008 video game Too Human.
- In the Atari 2600 game Swordquest: Fireworld, the map of the game world is patterned after the Kabbalah Tree of Life.
- In the 1997 video game Breath of Fire III, Yggdrasil, overseer of the world's forests, features a minor role. The mutant plant Peco, a party member, becomes able to channel Yggdrasil after a time skip of several years, during which Peco made extended visits to Yggdrasil.
- In the 2002 video game Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, a Tree of Life is the central building of the Night Elf race.
- In the Etrian Odyssey series, a great tree named Yggdrasil is present in all four games, serving as a major plot device to the story.
- In the 2007 video game Dragoneer's Aria, The Great Spirit guards a World Tree.
- In the 2008 video game Prince of Persia, a gigantic, ancient tree in the middle of the desert is used to keep the evil deity Ahriman sealed in a temple at its trunk. This game's story heavily borrows from Zoroastrianism.
- In the 2009 video game Uncharted 2: Among Thieves, the Tree of Life grows within the city of Shambala, and the sap or fossilized resin from the tree is seen to be consumed by the inhabitants of the city. This in turn grants the user incredible regenerative abilities, strength, increased height and possible biological immortality. The sap from the tree represents the Cintamani Stone of Buddhist mythology, a giant raw sapphire with supposed wish-fulfilling properties.
- In the 2009 video game Dragon Quest IX, the player must harvest fyggs from Yggdrasil, the World Tree, to attain passage into the realm of the Almighty.
- In the 2010 video game Darksiders, the Tree of Life is located in Eden where War (a Horseman of the Apocalypse) sees the future and a way to defeat Abaddon The Destroyer. The Tree of Life gives War the Armageddon Blade needed to kill him.
- In the 2012 video game Darksiders II, the Tree of Life is a gateway that connects all the realms of existence, allowing The Horseman Death to travel to different maps within the game.
Film[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
- Darren Aronofsky's 2006 film The Fountain (as well as the 2005 graphic novel based on the screenplay) centers on immortality given by the Tree of Life.
- In the 2008 movie The Librarian, the religious mention of the Tree of Life is clearly seen in parts with a Crusade-era picture of a knight with his shield in that of the Tree of Life. Another part of the movie depicts a fake secret area beneath a New York City museum, where there are historical items such as the Fountain of Youth and Noah's Ark. At the end of the movie the camera angle changes and the ground's walking surface is revealed to be that of the Tree of Life.
- In Dragon Ball Z's third movie Tree of Might, a giant tree named the Tree of Might is represented as an evil version of the Tree of Life. Its roots take so much nutrients from the planet it has been seeded on that it kills the planet to support its fruit and growth. It is also a very massive tree much like the Tree of Life can be represented as.
- In the 2009 film Avatar, the Na'vi live in Hometree, the spiritual and physical home of the tribe; over 300 meters tall, Hometree is connected with all the other plant life of Pandora through a neural-like network. They revere the Tree of Souls, which is also connected with all other living things.
- Alex Proyas' 2009 film Knowing ends with the two young protagonists directed towards the Tree of Life.[35]
- The Tree of Life is a Terrence Malick film released in May 2011, starring Brad Pitt, Sean Penn and Jessica Chastain.
- The Marvel Cinematic Universe film franchise features a Tree of Life, in a more science-based version of the mythical tree. In the 2011 Marvel Studiossuperhero film Thor, the Asgardian warrior Thor explains that the Nine Realms of the Asgardian cosmos are linked by Yggdrasil, the Norse mythological Tree of Life, which is here interpreted as a nebula in space connecting the planets in an orbit.
| This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
- Darren Aronofsky's 2006 film The Fountain (as well as the 2005 graphic novel based on the screenplay) centers on immortality given by the Tree of Life.
- In the 2008 movie The Librarian, the religious mention of the Tree of Life is clearly seen in parts with a Crusade-era picture of a knight with his shield in that of the Tree of Life. Another part of the movie depicts a fake secret area beneath a New York City museum, where there are historical items such as the Fountain of Youth and Noah's Ark. At the end of the movie the camera angle changes and the ground's walking surface is revealed to be that of the Tree of Life.
- In Dragon Ball Z's third movie Tree of Might, a giant tree named the Tree of Might is represented as an evil version of the Tree of Life. Its roots take so much nutrients from the planet it has been seeded on that it kills the planet to support its fruit and growth. It is also a very massive tree much like the Tree of Life can be represented as.
- In the 2009 film Avatar, the Na'vi live in Hometree, the spiritual and physical home of the tribe; over 300 meters tall, Hometree is connected with all the other plant life of Pandora through a neural-like network. They revere the Tree of Souls, which is also connected with all other living things.
- Alex Proyas' 2009 film Knowing ends with the two young protagonists directed towards the Tree of Life.[35]
- The Tree of Life is a Terrence Malick film released in May 2011, starring Brad Pitt, Sean Penn and Jessica Chastain.
- The Marvel Cinematic Universe film franchise features a Tree of Life, in a more science-based version of the mythical tree. In the 2011 Marvel Studiossuperhero film Thor, the Asgardian warrior Thor explains that the Nine Realms of the Asgardian cosmos are linked by Yggdrasil, the Norse mythological Tree of Life, which is here interpreted as a nebula in space connecting the planets in an orbit.
Anime[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
- In the anime Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water there is a giant tree beneath Antarctica that is identified as the Tree Of Life by Captain Nemo
- In the anime Ah My Goddess! Yggdrasil is a "program" that acts as the operating system for all life/reality.
- In the anime Genesis of Aquarion the Tree of Life is being fed to create a new Genesis.
- In the anime Rin - Daughters of Mnemosyne (Mnemosyne (anime)) The Tree of life is an eternal tree that bears fruit that grants immortal life to woman, while men are turned into short-lived angel-like creatures who have sex with and then kill the immortal woman.
- In the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion the tree of life was the source of all souls. Evangelion Unit-01 became the tree of life that once existed when it possessed the fruit of wisdom and fruit of life during Third Impact.
- In the anime Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D's the final antagonist Z-One, uses a deck of cards that are parts of the tree of life.
- In the anime Fullmetal Alchemist the tree of life is depicted on the alchemist's gates (their ability to perform transmutations)
- In the anime Sword Art Online, there is a large tree named the Yggdrasil, or the Tree of Life, sitting in the center of the VRMMORPG Alfheim Online.
- In the anime "Naruto", the Ten-Tailed Beast is revealed to be the harbinger of all life and mystical powers and its true form is a tree.
| This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
- In the anime Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water there is a giant tree beneath Antarctica that is identified as the Tree Of Life by Captain Nemo
- In the anime Ah My Goddess! Yggdrasil is a "program" that acts as the operating system for all life/reality.
- In the anime Genesis of Aquarion the Tree of Life is being fed to create a new Genesis.
- In the anime Rin - Daughters of Mnemosyne (Mnemosyne (anime)) The Tree of life is an eternal tree that bears fruit that grants immortal life to woman, while men are turned into short-lived angel-like creatures who have sex with and then kill the immortal woman.
- In the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion the tree of life was the source of all souls. Evangelion Unit-01 became the tree of life that once existed when it possessed the fruit of wisdom and fruit of life during Third Impact.
- In the anime Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D's the final antagonist Z-One, uses a deck of cards that are parts of the tree of life.
- In the anime Fullmetal Alchemist the tree of life is depicted on the alchemist's gates (their ability to perform transmutations)
- In the anime Sword Art Online, there is a large tree named the Yggdrasil, or the Tree of Life, sitting in the center of the VRMMORPG Alfheim Online.
- In the anime "Naruto", the Ten-Tailed Beast is revealed to be the harbinger of all life and mystical powers and its true form is a tree.
Other[edit]
- The logo of American health service and insurance company CIGNA makes use of a tree of life motif.[citation needed]
- The logo of American health service and insurance company CIGNA makes use of a tree of life motif.[citation needed]
Decorative arts[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
- The grandfather of British studio pottery, Bernard Leach, famously used a 'tree of life' on many of his works. Something which was continued by his son David Leach, among others.
- A motif of the tree of life is featured on Turkish 5 Kuruş coins, circulated since early 2009.
| This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
- The grandfather of British studio pottery, Bernard Leach, famously used a 'tree of life' on many of his works. Something which was continued by his son David Leach, among others.
- A motif of the tree of life is featured on Turkish 5 Kuruş coins, circulated since early 2009.
Physical "trees of life"[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015)
- The Arborvitae gets its name from the Latin for "tree of life."
- The Tule tree of Aztec mythology is also associated with a real tree. This Tule tree can be found in Oaxaca, Mexico.
- There is a Tree of Life in the island country of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.
- Metaphor: The Tree of Utah is an 87-foot (27 m) high sculpture in the Utah Bonneville Salt Flats that is also known as the Tree of Life.
- In some parts of the Caribbean and in the Philippines, the coconut is considered the "tree of life" as its parts can easily be used for short/medium term survival such as for food, shelter, and various implements.
- Disney's Animal Kingdom theme park features an artificial tree dubbed "The Tree of Life," which has about 325 carvings of different species of animals. Inside the tree is the It's Tough to Be a Bug! attraction.
- The West African Moringa oleifera tree is regarded as a "tree of life" or "miracle tree" by some because it is arguably the most nutritious source of plant-derived food discovered on the planet.[36] Modern scientists and some missionary groups have considered the plant as a possible solution for the treatment of severe malnutrition[37] and aid for those with HIV/AIDS.[38]
| This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2015) |
- The Arborvitae gets its name from the Latin for "tree of life."
- The Tule tree of Aztec mythology is also associated with a real tree. This Tule tree can be found in Oaxaca, Mexico.
- There is a Tree of Life in the island country of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.
- Metaphor: The Tree of Utah is an 87-foot (27 m) high sculpture in the Utah Bonneville Salt Flats that is also known as the Tree of Life.
- In some parts of the Caribbean and in the Philippines, the coconut is considered the "tree of life" as its parts can easily be used for short/medium term survival such as for food, shelter, and various implements.
- Disney's Animal Kingdom theme park features an artificial tree dubbed "The Tree of Life," which has about 325 carvings of different species of animals. Inside the tree is the It's Tough to Be a Bug! attraction.
- The West African Moringa oleifera tree is regarded as a "tree of life" or "miracle tree" by some because it is arguably the most nutritious source of plant-derived food discovered on the planet.[36] Modern scientists and some missionary groups have considered the plant as a possible solution for the treatment of severe malnutrition[37] and aid for those with HIV/AIDS.[38]