A city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE) is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem.[24][25] Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE).[26]
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Sumerian yeru, 'settlement'/Semiticyry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the god Shalem",[27][28] the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.[29]
The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim (Jerusalem) first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yir'eh ("God will see to it", the name given byAbraham to the place where he began to sacrifice his son) and the town "Shalem".[30]
The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE[31][32] and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",[33][34][35] or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".[36][37]
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Salam or Shalom in modern Arabic and Hebrew).[38][39] The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace",[28][40]"Abode of Peace",[41][42] "dwelling of peace" ("founded in safety"),[43] alternately "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.[44] The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the nameYerushalayim refers to the fact that the city sits on two hills.[45][46] However, the pronunciation of the last syllable as -ayim appears to be a late development, which had not yet appeared at the time of theSeptuagint.[citation needed]
The most ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was according to the Bible namedJebus (e.g., Judges 19:10: יְבוּס, הִיא יְרוּשָׁלִָ: "Jebus, it [is] Jerusalem"[47]).[48] Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed by David as theCity of David,[49] and was known by this name in antiquity.[50][51] Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole and to represent the biblical Land of Israel. In Greek and Latin the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.
The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14:18. Other early Hebrew sources,[52] early Christian renderings of the verse[53] and targumim,[54] however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (or Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.[55] Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans.[56]However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.[57]
In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "The Holy" or "The Holy Sanctuary".[41][42] Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūršalīm, which is the cognate of the Hebrew and English names, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس. أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس.[58] Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" or "Maqdisi", while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.
Shalim (derived from the triconsonantal Semitic root S-L-M, and also romanized as Shalem, Salem, and Salim) was the name of a god in the Canaanite religion pantheon, mentioned in inscriptions found in Ugarit (Ras Shamra) in Syria.[1][2]William F. Albright identified Shalim as the god of dusk, and Shahar as god of the dawn.[3] In the Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible, Shalim is also identified as the deity representing Venus or the "Evening Star," and Shahar, the "Morning Star".[1]
Shahar is the god of dawn in the pantheon of Ugarit. He is the twin brother and counterpart of Shalim, son of El, and the god of dusk. Both are gods of the planet Venus, and were considered by some to be a twinned avatar of the god Attar (Athtar). As the markers of dawn and dusk, Shahar and Shalim also represented the temporal structure of the day.
The name is a cognate of the Hebrew word Shahar (שחר) meaning dawn.
Attar (Aramaic); Athtar (South Arabia); Astar (Abyssinia); Ashtar (Moab); Ashtar(t) (Canaan); Ishtar (Assyro-Babylonian)[1] is the god of the morning star in western Semitic mythology. In Canaanite legend, he attempts to usurp the throne of the dead god Baal Hadad but proves inadequate. In semi-arid regions of western Asia he was sometimes worshipped as a rain god. His female counterpart is the Phoenician Astarte. In more southerly regions he is probably known as Dhu-Samani.
Attar was worshipped in Southern Arabia in pre-Islamic times. A god of war, he was often referred to as "He who is Bold in Battle". One of his symbols was the spear-point and the antelope was his sacred animal. He had power over Venus, the morning star, and was believed to provide humankind with water.
In ancient times, Arabia shared the gods of Mesopotamia, being so close to Babylon, except the genders and symbols of these deities were later swapped around. For instance, the sun god Shamash became the sun goddess Shams, and in southern Arabia Ishtar became the male storm god Athtar. The Sabaeans and other southern Arabians worshipped stars and planets, chief among whom were the sun (Shams), moon (Almaqah), and Athtar, the planet Venus.
As head of the Southern Arabian pantheon, Athtar was a god of the thunderstorm, dispensing natural irrigation in the form of rain.[2] Athtar also represented fertility and water as essential to fertility. When representing water he stood not just for the act of raining itself, but rather for the useful flow of the water after the rain, in the wadi, the Arabian watercourse which is dry except in the rainy season
Almaqah or Ilmuqah (Epigraphic South Arabian 
; Ge'ez አለመቀሀ, ʾLMQH, Arabic المقة ) was a sun god of the ancient Yemeni kingdom of Saba' and the kingdoms of Dʿmt and Aksum in Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. On Almaqah being the sun god scholar Jacques Ryckmans states; "Almaqah was until recently considered a moon god, but Garbini and Pirenne have shown that the bull's head and the vine motifassociated with him are solar and dionysiac attributes. He was therefore a sun god, the male counterpart of the sun goddess Šams, who was also venerated in Saba, but as a tutelary goddess of the royal dynasty."[1] The ruling dynasty of Saba' regarded themselves as his children. Almaqah is represented on monuments by a cluster of lightning bolts surrounding a curved, sickle-like weapon. Bulls were sacred to him.
; Ge'ez አለመቀሀ, ʾLMQH, Arabic المقة ) was a sun god of the ancient Yemeni kingdom of Saba' and the kingdoms of Dʿmt and Aksum in Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. On Almaqah being the sun god scholar Jacques Ryckmans states; "Almaqah was until recently considered a moon god, but Garbini and Pirenne have shown that the bull's head and the vine motifassociated with him are solar and dionysiac attributes. He was therefore a sun god, the male counterpart of the sun goddess Šams, who was also venerated in Saba, but as a tutelary goddess of the royal dynasty."[1] The ruling dynasty of Saba' regarded themselves as his children. Almaqah is represented on monuments by a cluster of lightning bolts surrounding a curved, sickle-like weapon. Bulls were sacred to him.Ugaritic inscriptions[edit]
A Ugaritic myth known as The Gracious and Most Beautiful Gods, describes Shalim and his brother Shahar as offspring of El through two women he meets at the seashore.
They are both nursed by "The Lady", likely Anat (Athirat or Asherah), and have appetites as large as "(one) lip to the earth and (one) lip to the heaven."
In other Ugaritic texts, the two are associated with the sun goddess.[1]
Another inscription is a sentence repeated three times in a para-mythological text, "Let me invoke the gracious gods, the voracious gods of ym." Ym in most Semitic languages means "day," and Shalim and Shahar, twin deities of the dusk and dawn, were conceived of as its beginning and end.[4]
Shalim is also mentioned separately in the Ugaritic god lists and forms of his name also appear in personal names, perhaps as a divine name or epithet.[1]
Many scholars believe that the name of Shalim is preserved in the name of the city Jerusalem.[1][5][6][7] The god Shalim may have been associated with dusk and the evening star in the etymological senses of a 'completion' of the day, 'sunset' and 'peace
Etymology[edit]
In Hebrew, the root of the word (usually in a three or occasionally four letter format), and depending on the vowels that are used, has several meanings (that are relevant to the general meaning of the word Shalom); as for example: One meaning is "Whole", another could be the actual verb "Pay" usually in command form. The conjugated verb has other spins that are worth noting, such as: "Hishtalem" meaning "it was worth it" or "Shulam" as "it was paid for" or "Meshulam" as in "paid in advance."[citation needed] Hence one can jokingly say that, "when it's paid-for then there is peace."
The Hebrew term shalom is roughly translated to other languages as peace [En.] (i.e. paz [Sp. and Pr.], paix [Fr.], pace [It.]), from the Latin pax. Pax, in Latin, means peace, but it was also used to mean truce or treaty. So, deriving from the definition and use in Latin, most Romance terms simply use the word peace to mean such, and also provides a relational application (be it personal, social or political) – a state of mind and affairs. Peace is an important word in the Christian sacred scriptures and liturgy. Eirene, the Greek term translated to peace, also means quietness and rest.
Shalom, in the liturgy and in the transcendent message of the Christian scriptures, means more than a state of mind, of being or of affairs. Derived from the Hebrew root shalam – meaning to be safe or complete, and by implication, to be friendly or to reciprocate. Shalom, as term and message, seems to encapsulate a reality and hope of wholeness for the individual, within societal relations, and for the whole world. To say joy and peace, meaning a state of affairs where there is no dispute or war, does not begin to describe the sense of the term. Completeness seems to be at the center of shalom as we will see in the meaning of the term itself, in some derivatives from its root, shalam, in some examples of its uses in Jewish and Christian Scriptures, and in some homophone terms from other Semitic languages.
The noun shalom means safe, for example, well and happy. On a more abstract application, its use points to welfare, for example, health, prosperity, and, peace. It is the verb form shalam, though, that provides a deeper understanding of this term in theology, doctrine, and liturgy. Literally translated, shalam signals to a state of safety, but figuratively it points to completeness. In its use in Scripture, shalom describes the actions that lead to a state of soundness, or better yet wholeness. So to say, shalom seems not to merely speak of a state of affairs, but describes a process, an activity, a movement towards fullness. Using the King James Version as reference, James Strong lists the rendering of shalom and shalam, among others, as:
- To make amends
- To make good
- To be (or to make) peace
- To restore
- Peace
- Prosperity
- Wellness
The use of shalom in the Scriptures always points towards that transcendent action of wholeness. Shalom is seen in reference to the wellbeing of others (Genesis 43.27, Exodus 4.18), to treaties (I Kings 5.12), and in prayer for the wellbeing of cities or nations (Psalm 122.6, Jeremiah 29.7). Coincidentally, the root shalem, means peaceful - though it is sometimes posited that this root is found in the name of the city Jerusalem (combined with yara, meaning to lay or found), this is likely a re-etymologization.[4] Yet, its transcendence lies in its relationship to truth and justice (Psalm 85.10, Isaiah 48.18, 22, 57.19–21). The wholeness of shalom, through justice and truth, inspires the words of hope for the work expected by the messiah, and to refer to its revelation as the time of peace (Haggai 2.7–9, Isaiah 2.2–4, 11.1–9), and to even grant this anointed one the title Prince of Peace (Isaiah 9.6, Micah 5.4–5a).
In the Christian Scriptures, the term eirene is employed to mean peace, but in its application, seeking for it the transcendence of its Hebrew counterpart, peace is better understood in relation to terms like grace (Romans 1.7), righteousness (Romans 14.17), and life (Romans 8.6). It is also employed in benedictions, like that in I Thessalonians 5.23 and Hebrews 13.20–21, perhaps making echo to prayers of peace common throughout the Hebrew Scriptures and Jewish benedictions (Numbers 6.22–27).
This sense of completeness, central to the term shalom could also be confirmed in homophonic terms found in other Semitic languages. The term shelam, of Chaldean origin, seems to mean both peace and restoration. Aramaic derivations of the terms shalom and shalam are said to mean peace, safety, completeness and welfare. The Assyrian term salamu means to be complete, unharmed, paid/atoned. Sulmu, another Assyrian term, means welfare. A closer relation to the idea of shalom as concept and action is seen in the Arabic root salaam. Meaning to be safe, secure, and forgiven, among other things. It also proposes a personal commitment to the concept, action, and transcendence of peace – Salaam is also the root for the terms Muslim and Islam, literally translated, he/she who submits to God and submission to God, respectively.
Muhammad Farid (ul) Islam Salim.
Shin-Lamedh-Mem is the triconsonantal root of many Semitic words, and many of those words are used as names. The root meaning translates to "whole, safe, intact". Derived from this are meanings of "to be safe, secure, at peace", hence "well-being, health" and passively "to be secured, pacified, submitted".
- Arabic: س ل م S-L-M (Maltese: S-L-M)
- East Semitic S-L-M
- Northwest Semitic Š-L-M
Arabic salām (سَلاَم), Maltese Sliem, Hebrew Shalom (שָׁלוֹם), Ge'ez sälam (ሰላም), Syriac šlama (pronounced Shlama, or Shlomo in the Western Syriac dialect) (ܫܠܡܐ) are cognate Semitic terms for 'peace', deriving from a Proto-Semitic *šalām-.
Given names derived from the same root include Solomon (Süleyman), Selim, Salim, Salem, Salma, Salmah, Selimah, Shelimah, Salome, etc.
Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew and Aramaic have cognate expressions meaning 'peace be upon you' used as a greeting:
- Arabic as-salāmu ʻalaykum (السلام عليكم) is used to greet others and is an Arabic equivalent of 'hello'. The appropriate response to such a greeting is "and upon you be peace" (wa-ʻalaykum as-salām).
- Hebrew שלום עליכם, shalom aleikhem, is the equivalent of the Arabic expression, the response being עליכם שלום, aléichem shalóm, 'upon you be peace'.
- Maltese sliem għalikom.
- Neo-Aramaic ܫܠܡܐ ܥܠܘܟ šlama 'lokh, classically ܫܠܡ ܠܟ, šlām lakh.
Contents
[hide]East Semitic[edit]
In the Amarna letters. A small number of the 382-letter corpus of the letters discussed the exchange of "peace gifts", namely greeting-gifts (Shulmani) between the Pharaoh and the other ruler involving the letter. The examples are Zita (Hittite prince), and Tushratta of Mitanni. Also, Kadashman-Enlil of Babylon, (Karduniaš of the letters).
Šalām, (shalamu) is also used in letter introductions, stating the authors health: an example letter EA19, from Tushratta to Pharaoh states:
- "...the king of Mittani, your brother. For me all goes well. For you may all go well."--(lines 2-4) (an 85-line letter)[1]
- Salimatu 'alliance'
- Salimu 'peace, concord'
- Shalamu 'to be(come) whole, safe; to recover; to succeed, prosper'.
- Shulmu 'health, well-being'; also a common greeting
Arabic[edit]
The Arabic word salām is used in a variety of expressions and contexts in Arabic and Islamic speech and writing. "Al-Salām" is one of the 99 names of God in Islam, and also a male given name in conjunction with ʻabd. ʻAbd al-Salām translates to 'Slave of Allah the All-Peaceable'.
- سلام salām 'Peace'
- السلام عليكم as-salāmu ʿalaykum 'Peace be upon you'
- إسلام Islām 'submission, entrusting one's wholeness to another'
- مسلم muslim 'One who submits'
- تسليم taslīm – 'delivering SLM – to give a salutation or a submission
- مستسلم mustaslim – 'wanting to receive SLM' – no longer seeking opposition/conflict, the one who has submitted
- سالم sālim – 'subject of SLM' – its SLM, 'the vase is SLM', 'the vase is whole, unbroken'
- مُسَلَّم musallam – 'undisputed'
- Christianity: in the rosary: السلام عليك يا مريم as-salām ʻalayki yā Maryam 'Hail Mary'.
In Maltese:
- Sliem – 'peace'
- Sellem – 'to greet, to salute'
Arabic Islām[edit]
Further information: Islam § Etymology and meaning
The word إسلام Islām is a verbal noun derived from s-l-m, meaning "submission" (i.e. entrusting one's wholeness to another), which may be interpreted as humility. "One who submits" is signified by the participle مسلم, Muslim (fem. مسلمة, muslimah).[3]
The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses (āyāt), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[4] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[5] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[6]
Given names[edit]
See also: Arabic name
- Salam (Arabic: سلام Salām)
- Salman (Arabic: سلمان Salmān)
- Selim (Arabic: سليم, originally: Salīm)
- Suleim (Arabic: سُليم Sulaym)
- Suleiman (Arabic: سليمان Sulaymān)
Northwest Semitic[edit]
Further information: Shalim
The Koine Greek New Testament text uses eirēnē (εἰρήνη) for 'peace',[7] which perhaps represents Jesus saying šlama; this Greek form became the northern feminine name Irene.
[[What did Jesus say in the cradle a child ؟ !!! ماذا قال يسوع وهو فى المهد صبيا ـ.mp4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TiIvuP2qJDg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TiIvuP2qJDg
BREAKING NEWS_ Prophet Muhammad's Name Found in the Hebrew Bible,Language of the prophets-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4Oly3HjvAw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4Oly3HjvAw
Bible prophecies about the mountain, which is jealous of it mountains on earth!!!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dkv7vpNk4M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dkv7vpNk4M
several prophecies from the Bible about Mountain Arafat and the pilgrimage to it in islam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yp6TSgCQDwI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yp6TSgCQDwI
]]
In the Epistles, it often occurs alongside the usual Greek greeting chairein(χαίρειν) in the phrase 'grace and peace'. However, comparison of the Greek Septuagint and
Hebrew Masoretic Old Testament texts shows some instances where shalom was translated instead as soteria (σωτηρία, meaning 'salvation').
In Hebrew:
- Shalom
- Mushlam (מושלם) – Perfect
- Shalem (שלם) – whole, complete
- Lehashlim (להשלים) – to complete, fill in
- Leshallem (לשלם) – to pay
- Tashlum (תשלום) – payment
- Shillumim (שילומים) – reparations
- Lehishtallem (להשתלם) – to be worth it, to "pay"
- Absalom (אבשלום) – a personal name, literally means 'Father [of] Peace'.
In Aramaic:
- Shlama – 'peace'
- Shalmuta