Taoism

Taoism
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Theories[hide] Dao (Tao) De (Te) Wuji Taiji Yin-Yang Wu wei Xian Wu Xing Qi
Practices[hide] Three Treasures Taoist meditation Taoist diet Neidan Taoist sexual practices
Texts[hide] Laozi (Tao Te Ching) Zhuangzi Liezi Daozang
Deities[hide] Hongjun Laozu Three Pure Ones Guan Shengdi Eight Immortals Yellow Emperor Li Hong Xiwangmu Jade Emperor Other deities
People [hide] Laozi Zhuangzi Zhang Daoling Zhang Jue Ge Hong Chen Tuan
Schools [hide] Wudoumi Tianshi Shangqing Lingbao Quanzhen (Longmen) Zhengyi Wuliu Yao Taoism
Holy places[hide] Taoist temple Grotto-heavens Mount Penglai
Organisations[hide] Chinese Taoist Association Celestial Master Daoshi
Portal Taoism
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The history of Taoism stretches throughout Chinese history. Originating in prehistoric China, it has exerted a powerful influence over Chinese culture throughout the ages. Taoism evolved in response to changing times, with its doctrine and associated practices being revised and refined. The acceptance of Taoism by the ruling class has waxed and waned, alternately enjoying periods of favor and rejection. Most recently, Taoism has emerged from a period of suppression and is undergoing a revival in China.

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism.^[1] Whether he actually existed is disputed,^[2] however, the work attributed to him - the Daodejing - is dated to the 4th or 3rd century BC.^[3]

Sinologist Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:

Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Daodejing and Zhuangzi
Techniques for achieving ecstasy
Practices for achieving longevity or immortality
Exorcism^[2]

Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.^[4]^[5] In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the "shamanism" of Southern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case.^[6] Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.^[6] The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Yin-Yang, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.^[7]

Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)[edit]

The term Daojia (usually translated as "philosophical Taoism") was coined during the Han Dynasty. In Sima Qian's history (chapter 63) it refers to immortals; in Liu Xiang it refers to Laozi and Zhuangzi (Daojiao came to be applied to the religious movements in later times). The earliest commentary on the Dao De Jing is that of Heshang Gong (the "Riverside Master"), a legendary figure depicted as a teacher to the Han emperor.^[8] In the early Han Dynasty, the Tao came to be associated with or conflated with the Xian Di Emperor. A major text from the Huang-Lao movement would be the Huainanzi, which interprets earlier works of the Taoist canon in light of the quest for immortality.

The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century AD; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.^[9] The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.^[10] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century.^[11]

The Celestial Masters' activities did hasten the downfall of the Han Dynasty, largely because Zhang's grandson set up a theocratic state into what is now Sichuan province. The same could be said of their contemporaries, the Taoist-leaning Yellow Turban sect.^[12]

Three Kingdoms Period (220–265)[edit]

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the Xuanxue (Mysterious Wisdom) school, including Wang Bi, focused on the texts of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Many of the school's members, including Wang Bi himself, were not religious in any sense.^[13] Wang Bi mostly focused on reconciling Confucian thought with Taoist thought. Because the version of the Tao Te Ching that has been passed on to the present is the one that Wang Bi commented upon, his interpretations became very influential as they were passed on alongside the Tao Te Ching. In addition, his commentary was compatible with Confucian ideas and Buddhist ideas that later entered China. This compatibility ensured Taoism would remain an important aspect of Chinese culture, and made the merging of the three religions easier in later periods, such as the Tang dynasty.^[14]

Six Dynasties (316–589)[edit]

Taoist alchemist Ge Hong, also known as Baopuzi (抱扑子 The "Master Embracing Simplicity") was active in the third and fourth centuries and had great influence on later Taoism.^[15] Major scriptures were produced during this time period, including The Shangqing (上清 "Supreme Clarity") (365–370) and Lingbao (靈寶 "Sacred Treasure") scriptures (397–402) received at Maoshan. The Shangqing revelations were received by Yang Xi, a relative of Ge Hong's; the revelations emphasised meditative visualisation (內觀 neiguan). They spoke of the Shangqing heaven, which stood above what had been previously considered the highest heaven by Celestial Master Taoists. Yang Xi's revelations consisted of visitations from the residents of this heaven (the "Zhenren") many of whom were ancestors of a circle of aristocrats from southern China. These Zhenren spoke of an apocalypse which was to arrive in 384, and claimed that only certain people from this aristocratic circle had been chosen to be saved. For the first century of its existence, Shangqing Taoism was isolated to this aristocratic circle. However, Tao Hongjing (456–536) codified and wrote commentaries on Yang Xi's writings and allowed for the creation of Shangqing Taoism as a popular religion.^[16] The Lingbao scriptures added some Buddhist elements such as an emphasis on universal salvation.^[17]

Also during the Six Dynasties period, the Celestial Master movement re-emerged in two distinct forms. The Northern Celestial Masters were founded in 424 century by Kou Qianzhi, and a Taoist theocracy was established that lasted until 450 CE.^[18] After this time, the Northern Celestial Masters were expelled from the Wei court and re-established themselves at Louguan where they survived into the Tang Dynasty.^[19]The Southern Celestial Masters were centered at Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing, and were likely made of those adherents who fled Sichuan and others who fled from Luoyang after its fall in 311 CE. These various followers of The Way of the Celestial Master coalesced to form a distinct form of Taoism known as the Southern Celestial Masters, who lasted as a distinct movement into the fifth century.^[20]

Tang Dynasty (618–907)[edit]

Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.^[21] However, it was forced to compete with Confucianism and Buddhism, its major rivals, for patronage and rank. Emperor Xuanzong (685–762), who ruled at the height of the Tang, wrote commentaries on texts from all three of these traditions, which exemplifies the fact that in many people's lives they were not mutually exclusive. This marks the beginning of a long-lived tendency within imperial China, in which the government supported (and simultaneously regulated) all three movements.^[22] The Gaozong Emperor added the Tao Te Ching to the list of classics (jing, 經) to be studied for the imperial examinations.^[23]

Song Dynasty (960–1279)[edit]

Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.^[24]

The Quanzhen school of Taoism was founded during this period, and together with the resurgent Celestial Masters called the Zhengyi is one of the two schools of Taoism that have survived to the present.^[25]

The Song Dynasty saw an increasingly complex interaction between the elite traditions of organised Taoism as practised by ordained Taoist ministers (daoshi) and the local traditions of folk religion as practised by spirit mediums (wu) and a new class of non-ordained ritual experts known as fashi.^[26] This interaction manifested itself in the integration of 'converted' local deities into the bureaucratically organised Taoist pantheon and the emergence of new exorcistic rituals, including the Celestial Heart Rites and the Thunder Rites.^[27]

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.^[28]

Yuan Dynasty (1279–1367)[edit]

White Cloud Monastery in Beijing

Taoism suffered a significant setback in 1281 when many copies of the Daozang were ordered burned. This destruction gave Taoism a chance to renew itself.^[29] Neidan, a form of internal alchemy, became a major emphasis of the Quanzhen sect, whose practitioners followed a monastic model inspired by Buddhism. One of its leaders, Qiu Chuji became a teacher of Genghis Khan before the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty. (and used his influence to save millions of lives). Originally from Shanxi and Shandong, the sect established its main center in Beijing's Baiyunguan ("White Cloud Monastery").^[30] Before the end of the dynasty, the Celestial Masters sect (and Buddhism) again gained preeminence.^[31]

Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)[edit]

In 1406, Ming emperor Zhu Di commanded that all Taoist texts be collected and combined into a new version of the Daozang. The text was finally finished in 1447, and took nearly forty years to complete.^[32]

Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)[edit]

The fall of the Ming Dynasty and the subsequent establishment of the Qing Dynasty by the Manchus was blamed by some literati on religion, specifically Taoism. They sought to regain power by advocating a return to Confucian orthodoxy in a movement called Hanxue, or "Han Learning." This movement returned the Confucian classics to favor and nearly completely rejected Taoism. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.^[33] By the beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).^[34]

Nationalist Period (1912–1949)[edit]

Guomindang (Chinese Nationalist Party) leaders embraced science, modernity, and Western culture, including (to some extent) Christianity. Viewing the popular religion as reactionary and parasitic, they confiscated some temples for public buildings, and otherwise attempted to control traditional religious activity.^[35]

People's Republic of China (1949–present)[edit]

The Communist Party of China, officially atheistic, initially suppressed Taoism along with other religions. During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, many Taoist temples and sites were damaged and Monks and priests were sent to labor camps.^[36]

Persecution of Taoists stopped in 1979, and many Taoists began reviving their traditions.^[36] Subsequently, many temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened.

Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the PRC, which regulates its activities through the China Taoist Association.^[37] Sensitive areas include the relationship of the Zhengyi Taoists with their sect's lineage-holder, who lives in Taiwan, and various traditional temple activities such as astrology and shamanism, which have been criticized as "superstitious".^[38]

Taoism in the West[edit]

In the 1927-1944 the chief proponent of Taoism in the West was Professor Henri Maspero in Paris. Michael Saso was the first westerner to be initiated as a Taoist priest; he subsequently served also as co-editor of Taoist Resources. Today, many Taoist organizations have been established in the West.

"Popular Western Taoism" is a new religious movement that disregards the Daoist religion and Chinese culture, and blends Western individualism with New Age spiritualism.^[39]^[40] Jonathan R. Herman coined the term in 2001, criticizing the "Daoism" promoted by texts such as Ursula K. Le Guin's pseudo-translation of the Daodejing and Benjamin Hoff's The Tao of Pooh. "Not surprisingly, the sinological community (myself included) has generally greeted this overall phenomenon – what I will from here on label "popular Western Daoism" – with varying degrees of indifferences, amusement, and derision."^[41] Louis Komjathy described this "emergent religion" as "'American' or 'Western' Daoism"; "New Age discourse communities and advocates of Perennial Philosophy identify and interpret Daoist texts as part of a 'universal wisdom tradition'."^[42] Komjathy later elaborated on these spiritual hybrids, "They domesticate, sterilize and misrepresent Daoism. In their most developed expressions, they may best be understood as part of a new religious movement (NRM) called 'Popular Western Taoism' (PWT), with Taoism pronounced with a hard 't' sound."^[43] This refers to the common /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ mispronunciation of English Taoism /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/(see Daoism–Taoism romanization issue).

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Taoism (or Daoism) is a philosophical, ethical, and religious tradition of Chinese origin that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also romanized as Dao). The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source and the driving force behind everything that exists.

While Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the tenets of the School of Yin Yang, the Tao Te Ching, a compact and ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade–Giles: Lao Tzu), is widely considered its keystone work. Together with the writings of Zhuangzi, these two texts build the philosophical foundation of Taoism deriving from the 8 Hexagrams of Fu Xi in the 2700s BCE in China.

Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility.

Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and clerics of institutionalised Taoism (Chinese: 道士; pinyin:dàoshi) usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia.

After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was several times nominated as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor.

Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized in the PRC, and although it does not travel readily from its Asian roots, claims adherents in a number of societies.^[1]such as Wudang Mountains which is the center of in China today, Taoism also has sizable communities in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and in Southeast Asia.

A Chinese philosopher defines Daoism as “early forms comes from understanding and experience of the dao. Experience of the dao is an irreducible element of the formation and transformation of Chinese experience of the ultimate”.^[2]

Spelling and pronunciation[edit]

Main article: Daoism–Taoism romanization issue

The Dai Temple at Mount Tai, one of the holiest mountains in China

English-speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words "Daoism" and "Taoism". The root Chinese word 道 "way, path" is romanized tao in the olderWade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 "way; route; principle" and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, and politics – not to mention whether Taoism should be pronounced /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/.

Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin daoare articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism. An investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages (a pun on the Dow Jones Indexes) illustrates this /daʊ/pronunciation's widespread familiarity.^[3] In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/, reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis ("weak") /t/ as the English voiceless stop consonant /t/. Lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. A study of major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the United States found the most common Taoism glosses were /taʊ.ɪzəm/ in British sources and /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/ in American ones.^[4]

Categorization[edit]

There is debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be categorized. Traditionally, it is divided into two categories:^{[citation needed]}

Philosophical Taoism (Daojia, Chinese: 道家; pinyin: dàojiā; lit. "school or family of Dao") – The philosophy based on the texts of the Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing,Chinese: 道德經; pinyin: dàodéjīng) and the Zhuangzi (Chinese: 莊子; pinyin: zhuāngzi). These texts were linked together under the term of Daojia during the earlyHan Dynasty, but notably not before.^[5]^[6] It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing,^[7]^[8] and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death.^[8]
Religious Taoism (Daojiao, Chinese: 道教; pinyin: dàojiào; lit. "teachings of Dao") – A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology derived from Daojia;^[9] the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school.

However, the distinction between Daojia and Daojiao is supposedly rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars.^[10]^[11] It is, among others, contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.^[12] Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions; nor can it be studied as the originator or a variant of Chinese folk religion, as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.^[13] Sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."^[14]

Chung-ying Cheng, a Chinese philosopher views Daoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition. “Whether Confucianism, Daoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom”.^[2] Chung-ying Cheng also noted that through the Daoism view of heaven, their main approached of this idea mainly from “observation and meditation, the teaching of the way (dao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature”.^[2] In Chinese history, while all three religions from Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism stand their own independence views, yet they “involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among themselves, so that we can speak of a ‘unity of three religious teaching’ (sanjiao heyi)”.^[15]

Origins and development[edit]

Main article: History of Taoism

Taoism ceremony in Wudang Mountains

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism.^[16] Whether he actually existed is disputed;^[17]^[18] however, the work attributed to him – the Tao Te Ching – is dated to the late 4th century BCE.^[19]

Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in form of its main elements – yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during theWarring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC).^[20]

Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:

Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi
techniques for achieving ecstasy
practices for achieving longevity or immortality
exorcism.^[17]

Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.^[21]^[22] In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the "shamanism" of Southern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case.^[23] Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.^[23] The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.^[24]

The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.^[25] The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.^[26] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.^[27]

Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.^[28] The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 to 370.^[29]

Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school,^[30] which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).^[31]Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.^[32]

In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the 13th and 14th century and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation.^[33]

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368–1644).^[34]

The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), however, much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works.

During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.^[35] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (for example, only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).^[36]

Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association.^[37] Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.

Ethics[edit]

A Taoist Temple inTaiwan, showing elements of the Jingxiang religious practice and sculptures ofDragon and Lion guardians

Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all,wu wei.^[38] However, the concepts of those keystone texts can not be equated with Taoism as a whole.^[39]

Tao and Te[edit]

Main articles: Tao and De (Chinese)

Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.^[40] In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."^[41] It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe",^[42] a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",^[43] or a demonstration of nature.^[44] The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanentin themselves.^[45]

The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled – and pronounced – De, or even Teh; often translated with Virtue or Power; Chinese: 德; pinyin: dé),^[46] in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.^[47]

Wu-wei[edit]

Main article: Wu wei

The ambiguous term wu-wei (simplified Chinese: 无为; traditional Chinese: 無爲; pinyin: wú wéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.^[48] Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent".^[48]The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action".^[49]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.^[50] Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe.^[51] Thus, a potentially harmful interference must be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.^[52]^[53] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."^[48]

Naturalness[edit]

Main article: Ziran

Naturalness (Chinese: 自然; pinyin: zìrán; Wade–Giles: tzu-jan; lit. "self-such") is regarded as a central value in Taoism.^[54] It describes the "primordial state" of all things^[55] as well as a basic character of the Tao,^[56] and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.^[57]^[56] To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao;^[56] this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.^[54]

An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (simplified Chinese: 朴; traditional Chinese: 樸; pinyin: pǔ, pú; Wade–Giles: p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.^[58] It is usually referred to as a state one returns to.^[59]

Three Treasures[edit]

Taoist Priest in Macau, February 2006

Main article: Three Treasures (Taoism)

The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels (simplified Chinese: 三宝; traditional Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo) comprise the basic virtues of ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (Chinese: 俭; pinyin: jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (Chinese: 不敢为天下先; pinyin: bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility).

As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".^[60]

The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen (Chinese: 精氣神; pinyin: jīng-qì-shén; jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation - Yinyangism - with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist yoga").^[61]

Cosmology[edit]

Further information: School of Yin Yang, Qi and Taoism and death

Taoist cosmology is based on the School of Yin Yang^[20] which was headed by Zou Yan (305 BCE – 240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Phases) and yin and yang. In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi, which, "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential".^[62] Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state.^[63] These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang,^[63] two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and cannot exist without the other.^[64]

Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe,^[13] and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the zang-fu organs.^[65] As a consequence, it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.^[66]

Physical exercises[edit]

Main article: Neidan

See also: Taoist alchemy, Taoist sexual practices and Neijia

A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.^[67]^[68] Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian.

A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy. Already in very early Taoist scriptures - like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi - alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.^[69]^[70]

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of Neijia (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang and Xing Yi Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.^[71]

Pantheon[edit]

Statue of Taoist deity in Taiwan

Further information: Category:Chinese deities

Texts[edit]

Tao Te Ching[edit]

Laozi depicted as a Taoist teacher

Main article: Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.^[76] According to legend, it was written by Laozi,^[77] and often the book is simply referred to as the "Laozi." However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate,^[78] and will probably never be known with certainty.^[79] The earliest texts of theTao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE.^[80] Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual text.^[81]

The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:

道可道非常道 (pinyin: dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào)

"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao"
名可名非常名 (pinyin: míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng)
"The name that can be named is not the eternal name."^[82]

There is significant, at times acrimonious debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which particular translation methodology is best.^[83] The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.^[84]

The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things through small means.^[85] Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.^[86] Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and theXiang'er.^[87]

Zhuangzi[edit]

Main article: Zhuangzi (book)

The Taoist book Zhuangzi (simplified Chinese: 庄子; traditional Chinese: 莊子; pinyin: Zhuāngzǐ), named after its purported author Zhuangzi, is a composite of writings from various sources, and is considered one of the most important texts in Taoism. The commentator Guo Xiang (circa 300 AD) helped established the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements.^[88]^[89]

Daozang[edit]

Main article: Daozang

The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming Dynasty.^[90]^[91] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.^[92] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":^[93]^[94]

The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan （茅山） revelations.

Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.^[95]

The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.^[96]

Other texts[edit]

Symbols and images[edit]

A Chinese dragon at the Mengjia Longshan Temple in Taipei

The taijitu (simplified Chinese: 太极图; traditional Chinese: 太極圖; pinyin: tàijítú; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol") as well as the Ba Gua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism.^[98] The taijitu is not an exclusive symbol of Taoism, however. While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it, one could actually also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century.^[99] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.^[99]

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.^[100] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.^[101]

A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.^[102]

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenix made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.^[103] In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures.^[104]

Adherents[edit]

A century-old Taoist temple, a landmark built by the Chinese community in 5th Avenue LRT Station,Caloocan, Manila, Philippines.

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. The number of people practicing Chinese folk religion is estimated at just under four hundred million.^[105] Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Estimates for the number of Taoists worldwide range from twenty million and possibly to as many as 400 million in China alone.^[106]^[107]^[108]

Recently, there have been some efforts to revive the practice of Taoist religion. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao, but re-established in 1980. The headquarters of the Association are at Baiyun guan, or White Cloud Temple, of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen.^[109]

Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, most of them belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen school. For these two schools,ordination has been officially allowed again. However, "the Chinese government prefers the celibate model of ... Quanzhen clergy", while "Zhengyi clergy are often married, and often reside at home."^[110]

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and various Chinese diasporacommunities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following, except in Korea and Vietnam, until modern times. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.^[111] In Singapore, 8.5% of the population identify themselves as Taoist.^[112] There are also small numbers of Taoists in the Western world.

Rituals[edit]

Taoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased or the gods, such as during the Qingming Festival. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper, or Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. At other points, a vegan diet or full fast may be observed.

Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); tongji (童乩 "spirit-medium; shaman") who cut their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are Kungfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.^[113]

Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing.^[114]

Art and poetry[edit]

Six Persimmons, a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, Mu Qi.

Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by Taosim include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang,Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu.^[115] Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy, however scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.^[116]

Political aspects[edit]

Unlike Confucianism, Taoism favors philosophical anarchism, pluralism and laissez-faire-government.^[117] Laozi has been cited as an early example of a proponent ofliberalism.^[118]^[119] On the other hand, politics never have been a main issue in Taoism.

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