Nun, the embodiment of the primordial waters, lifts the
barque of the sun god
Ra into the sky at the moment of creation.
Egyptian mythology is the collection of
myths from
ancient Egypt, which describe the actions of the
Egyptian gods as a means of understanding the world. The beliefs that these myths express are an important part of
ancient Egyptian religion. Myths appear frequently in Egyptian
writings and
art, particularly in short stories and in religious material such as hymns, ritual texts,
funerary texts, and
templedecoration. These sources rarely contain a complete account of a myth and often describe only brief fragments.
Inspired by the cycles of nature, the Egyptians saw time in the present as a series of recurring patterns, whereas the earliest periods of time were linear. Myths are set in these earliest times, and myth sets the pattern for the cycles of the present. Present events repeat the events of myth, and in doing so renew
maat, the fundamental order of the universe. Amongst the most important episodes from the mythic past are the
creation myths, in which the gods form the universe out of primordial chaos; the stories of the reign of the sun god
Ra upon the earth; and the
Osiris myth, concerning the struggles of the gods
Osiris,
Isis, and
Horus against the disruptive god
Set. Events from the present that might be regarded as myths include Ra's daily journey through the world and its otherworldly counterpart, the
Duat. Recurring themes in these mythic episodes include the conflict between the upholders of
maat and the forces of disorder, the importance of the
pharaoh in maintaining
maat, and the continual death and regeneration of the gods.
The details of these sacred events differ greatly from one text to another and often seem contradictory. Egyptian myths are primarily metaphorical, translating the essence and behavior of deities into terms that humans can understand. Each variant of a myth represents a different symbolic perspective, enriching the Egyptians' understanding of the gods and the world.
Mythology profoundly influenced Egyptian culture. It inspired or influenced many religious rituals and provided the ideological basis for kingship. Scenes and symbols from myth appeared in art in tombs, temples, and
amulets. In literature, myths or elements of them were used in stories that range from humor to allegory, demonstrating that the Egyptians adapted mythology to serve a wide variety of purposes.
Origins[edit]
The development of Egyptian myth is difficult to trace. Egyptologists must make educated guesses about its earliest phases, based on written sources that appeared much later.
[1] One obvious influence on myth is the Egyptians' natural surroundings. Each day the sun rose and set, bringing light to the land and regulating human activity; each year the
Nile flooded, renewing the fertility of the soil and allowing the highly productive farming that sustained Egyptian civilization. Thus the Egyptians saw water and the sun as symbols of life and thought of time as a series of natural cycles. This orderly pattern was at constant risk of disruption: unusually low floods resulted in famine, and high floods destroyed crops and buildings.
[2] The hospitable Nile valley was surrounded by harsh desert, populated by peoples the Egyptians regarded as uncivilized enemies of order.
[3] For these reasons, the Egyptians saw their land as an isolated place of stability, or
maat, surrounded and endangered by chaos. These themes—order, chaos, and renewal—appear repeatedly in Egyptian religious thought.
[4]
Another possible source for mythology is ritual. Many rituals make reference to myths and are sometimes based directly on them.
[5] But it is difficult to determine whether a culture's myths developed before rituals or vice versa.
[6] Questions about this
relationship between myth and ritual have spawned much discussion among Egyptologists and scholars of
comparative religionin general. In ancient Egypt, the earliest evidence of religious practices predates written myths.
[5] Rituals early in Egyptian history included only a few motifs from myth. For these reasons, some scholars have argued that, in Egypt, rituals emerged before myths.
[6] But because the early evidence is so sparse, the question may never be resolved for certain.
[5]
In private rituals, which are often called "magical", the myth and the ritual are particularly closely tied. Many of the myth-like stories that appear in the rituals' texts are not found in other sources. Even the widespread motif of the goddess
Isis rescuing her poisoned son
Horus appears only in this type of text. The Egyptologist David Frankfurter argues that these rituals adapt basic mythic traditions to fit the specific ritual, creating elaborate new stories based on myth.
[7] In contrast, J. F. Borghouts says of magical texts that there is "not a shred of evidence that a specific kind of 'unorthodox' mythology was coined… for this genre."
[8]
Much of Egyptian mythology consists of origin myths, explaining the beginnings of various elements of the world, including human institutions and natural phenomena. Kingship arises among the gods at the beginning of time and later passed to the human pharaohs; warfare originates when humans begin fighting each other after the sun god's withdrawal into the sky.[9] Myths also describe the supposed beginnings of less fundamental traditions. In a minor mythic episode, Horus becomes angry with his mother Isis and cuts off her head. Isis replaces her lost head with that of a cow. This event explains why Isis was sometimes depicted with the horns of a cow as part of her headdress.[10]
Some myths may have been inspired by historical events. The unification of Egypt under the pharaohs, at the end of the Predynastic Period around 3100 BC, made the king the focus of Egyptian religion, and thus the ideology of kingship became an important part of mythology.[11] In the wake of unification, gods that were once local patron deities gained national importance, forming new relationships that linked the local deities into a unified national tradition. Geraldine Pinch suggests that early myths may have formed from these relationships.[12] Egyptian sources link the mythical strife between the gods Horus and Set with a conflict between the regions of Upper[set] and Lower Egypt[Horus], which may have happened in the late Predynastic era or in the Early Dynastic Period.[13][Note 1]
After these early times, most changes to mythology developed and adapted preexisting concepts rather than creating new ones, although there were exceptions.[14] Many scholars have suggested that the myth of the sun god withdrawing into the sky, leaving humans to fight among themselves, was inspired by the breakdown of royal authority and national unity at the end of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BC – 2181 BC).[15] In the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC), minor myths developed around deities like Yam and Anat who had been adopted from Canaanite religion. In contrast, during the Greek and Roman eras (332 BC–641 AD), Greco-Roman culture had little influence on Egyptian mythology.[16]
