Prehistoric Period: ca. 3000-1200 BC
ca. 3000-2600: Indus Valley civilization: Harappan civilization
ca. 1200-500 BC: Vedic Era
ca. 550-100 BC: Rivals to Hinduism
ca. 322-185 BC: Mauryan Empire
ca. AD 320-540: Gupta Era
- ca. 320-335: Chandragupta I
- ca. 335-376: Samudragupta
- ca. 376-415: Chandragupta II
- ca. 454-500: Hun Invasions
- ca. 540: End of Gupta Dynasty
ca. AD 500-1001: Period of Political instability
- ca. 540: Rise of Chalukyas at Vatapi
- ca. 606-646: Harsha of Kanauj
- ca. 700-800: Buddhism spreads to Tibet and Nepal
- 711: Arabs invade Sind
- ca. 750: Rise of imperial Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas
- 760: Palas in Bengal
- ca. 846: Rise of Cholas and defeat of Pallavis
- ca. 970: Revival of Chalukyas and defeat of Rashtrakutas
1000-1750: Period of Muslim dominance
- 1001: Raids by Mahmud of Ghanzi
- 1206-1290: Slave Dynasty and Beginning of Delhi Sultanate
- 1290-1320: Khalji Sultanate
- 1320-1413: Tughlug Sultanate
- 1414-1451: Sayyid Sultanate
- 1451-1526: Lodi Sultanate
- 1498: Vasco da Gama arrives in India
- 1483-1757: The Mughal Empire
- 1502: Portuguese establish colony at Cochin
- 1526-1530: Reign of Babur
- 1556-1605: Reign of Akbar
- 1600: British East India Company is chartered
- 1605-1627: Reign of Jahangir
- 1628-1658: Reign of Shah Jahan
- 1658-1707: Reign of Aurangzeb
- 1744-1748: War between French and British
1750-1947: India under British Rule
1947-present: The Indian Republic
One of the most fascinating yet mysterious cultures of the ancient world is the Harappan civilization. This culture existed along the Indus River in present day Pakistan. It was named after the city of Harappa which it was centered around. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization. These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout. Over one hundred other towns and villages also existed in this region. The Harappan people were literate and used the Dravidian language. Only part of this language has been deciphered today, leaving numerous questions about this civilization unanswered.
Artifacts and clues discovered at Mohenjo-Daro have allowed archaeologists to reconstruct this civilization. The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization. Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks. The two cities may have existed simultaneously and their sizes suggest that they served as capitals of their provinces. In contrast to other civilizations, burials found from these cities are not magnificent; they are more simplistic and contain few material goods. This evidence suggests that this civilization did not have social classes. Remains of palaces or temples in the cities have not been found. No hard evidence exists indicating military activity; it is likely that the Harappans were a peaceful civilization. The cities did contain fortifications and the people used copper and bronze knives, spears, and arrowheads.
The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile. Inhabitants of the Indus valley traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and turquoise. The Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture was used to take advantage of the fertile grounds along the Indus River. Earthlinks were built to control the river's annual flooding. Crops grown included wheat, barley, peas, melons, and sesame. This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated including the elephant which was used for its ivory.
 Most of the artwork from this civilization was small and used as personal possessions. The first objects unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were small stone seals. These seals were inscribed with elegant portrayals of real and imagined animals and were marked with the Indus script writing. The seals suggest a symbolic or religious intent. Stone sculptures carved in steatite, limestone, or alabaster depict a male figure who may have represented a god. Pottery figures were shaped into humans and animals. Very few bronze figures have been recovered.
The Harappan civilization experienced its height around 2500 BC and began to decline about 2000 BC. The causes of its downfall are not certain. One theory suggests that the Aryan people migrated into this area. Aryan religious texts and human remains in Mohenjo-Daro suggest that the Aryans may have violently entered the area, killing its inhabitants and burning the cities.
However, another theory supported by more recent evidence suggests that this civilization may have begun to decline before the Aryans arrived. The inhabitants of the Indus valley dispersed before the Aryans slowly entered the area as a nomadic people. The Aryans were then able to take over this area since most of the inhabitants had previously left. One cause of the dispersal of the Harappans could have been a result of agricultural problems. Topsoil erosion, depletion of nutrients from the soil, or a change in the course of the Indus River may have forced these people to leave their towns and move northeastward in search of more fertile land.
The Aryan Migrations
1500-1200 BC
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The Indus Valley (or Harappan) Civilization was the largest civilization in the world during its reign from 3000 to 1500 BC. This culture was unique in that its cities were extraordinarily similar throughout a geographically widespread area, yet there is no physical evidence of a central unifying government. Regardless, the civilization appears to have been very peaceful, with an emphasis on trade rather than agriculture or war. For reasons yet undetermined, this civilization began to deteriorate around 2000 BC, with little of it remaining by 1500 BC.
A group of warrior nomads, the Aryans, began to migrate into the Indus Valley region around the time that the Harappan Civilization began to decline. Scholars disagree about whether the Aryans overtook the Harappan Civilization by force, or simply moved in and coexisted with them during their decline. Regardless, the nomadic Aryans were predominately a cattle-breeding society, and they learned how to live as settled agriculturists from the remaining Harappan people. Therefore, the Aryans absorbed remnants of the Harappan Civilization and integrated them into their own culture to form the Vedic culture. Since the Indus Valley Civilization left no written records, the nature of the transition from the Harappan culture to the resulting Vedic culture is that much more a mystery.
There are several possible arguments against the idea of Aryan invasions. According to the invasion theory, the Aryans were a group of primitive nomads who came out of Central Asia with chariots, iron weapons, and superior battle tactics; and thus overthrew the Indus Valley culture. However, this theory can be called into question for several reasons. First, there has been no evidence of horses, chariots, or iron discovered at the Indus Valley excavation sites. Also, the idea of Aryans using chariots has been questioned since they are not typically the vehicles of nomads, and chariots would not have been suitable for crossing the mountainous terrain that an Aryan invasion would have required. Further, some scholars assert that excavation evidence points to internal factors and floods as the cause of destruction of the Harappan culture rather than outside invasion.
However, other scholars argue that the Aryans were undoubtedly a conquering people when they first spread into India, then they gradually mixed with the indigenous Harappan culture. According to this view, the Aryans were a fierce and conquering people whose culture was oriented around warfare. Their religion also reflected their culture, as it was dominated by warring storm-gods and sky-gods. This warlike nature was preserved in the later Vedic religion (see the "Rig Veda"), where the god Indra was portrayed as a conquering deity who smashed cities and killed enemies. In the "Hymn to Parusha" in the "Rig Veda", the god Parusha sacrificed himself to himself, and out of his parts came the different classes of Indian peoples. This became the basis for the socially stratified caste system. Perhaps the Aryans used this creation myth to subjugate the darker-skinned people they conquered (the Harappans). Further, the Aryans saw themselves as superiors to the people they conquered as evidenced in the Indo-European root word of their name, "ar", meaning "noble" or "superior".
Therefore, the two sides of the argument are clear enough. Either the Aryans and Harappans mixed together and became peaceful, or the Aryans came in as a conquering people, became the ruling class, and instituted the caste system to maintain control. Scholars still debate, however, as to what actually occurred.
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The Rig Veda
1200-900 BC
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The Rig-Veda is a collection of over 1,000 hymns, which contain the mythology of the Hindu gods, and is considered to be one of the foundations of the Hindu religion. While the Rig is the oldest of the Vedas, there are three other Vedas. There is the Sama Veda, which is the "knowledge of chants" or a number of basic hymns recited at sacrifices. There is also the Yajur Veda or "knowledge of rites" which serve basically as a "how to make sacrifices" book. The final Veda is the Athara Veda, this Veda represents the knowledge given by Athara who was a sage. These Vedas were passed on orally for many generations. When they were written down, they were first written in Vedic, an early form of Sanskrit. Then around 300 B.C. the Vedas were written down in the form we have them today.
The Rig Veda was written by the Aryans who entered the Indus Valey toward the end of the Harappan Civilization. They wrote this Veda between 1300 and 1000 BC, during the period of the Aryan Migrations. However, there may be possible Harappan influences on these works. This is because the Vedas were actually being developed before the Aryans arrived around 2000 B.C.
Although there are many Vedas written, the most important is the Rig, which contains over 1,000 hymns directed to the gods. The content of these hymns includes praises, blessings, sacrifices, and curses. These hymns are the major way in which the Aryan people praised their gods. The subject of the hymns is the personification of the powers of nature. The hymns are written in poetic form:
"This light hath come, of all the lights the fairest,
The brilliant brightness hath been born, far-shining,
Urged on to prompt the sun-god's shining power.
Night and Morning clash not, nor yet do linger." (Bloomfield 30)
As you can see, this is very poetic language. This can be chanted, creating a worshipful mood in a person. When you chant these words, you are transported into another state of mind. In fact, this and other hymns were probably chanted by the Aryan people at one of their religious ceremonies.
The theology of the Vedas was later developed in the Upanishads. At the end of the Rig and all of the Vedas, the Hindu Brahmins added a summary of the philosophy of the Veda. The Upanishads became the basis of Hinduism. For the Hindu person, they serve as a summary of all of the knowledge of the Veda as well as a commentary on them.
The religion that sprang forth from the Vedas helped shape Indian society. For example, the Rig Veda and Vedic literature were used in the development of the caste system. The Rig Veda describes how the god Purusha sacrificed himself to himself. Each of the pieces of his body developed into a different portion of society. His mouth became the Brahmin or priests; his arms became the Kshatriyas or warriors; his thighs became the Vaisya or merchants, farmers, herders and artisans; and the feet became the Sudra or slaves and servants. Thus, while each part of society had its own role, it was still and single body.
Rig Veda
Two Hymns
The Vedas are collections of hymns dating back to the Aryan period of Indian history. The Rig Veda is the most important of the these collections. It is very likely that some of these hymns originated well before the time the Aryans came to northwestern India as a warrior elite. It was probably compiled into its present form between 1200 and 900 BC but was probably not written down until 600 BC. The first of the two selections is among the oldest in the collection and celebrates the victory of Indra, one of the most important gods, over Vritra, the dragon of drought. The second hymn is much later and tells of Prusha, the universal spirit, sacrificing himself to himself.
Chronologies
World: Age of River Valley Civilizations
India: The Vedic Era
I. Hymn to Indra
I will declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the thunder wielder.
He slew the dragon [1], then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents.
He slew the dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Twashtar [2] fashioned.
Like lowing cows in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean.
Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Soma [3], and quaffed in threefold sacrifice the juices.
Maghavan [4] grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons.
When, Indra, thou hadst slain the dragons' firstborn, and overcome the charms of the enchanters,
Then, giving life to sun and dawn and heaven, thou foundest not one foe to stand against thee.
Indra with his own great and deadly thunder smote into pieces Vritra worst of Vritras.
As trunks of trees, what time the axe hath felled them, low on the earth so lies the prostrate dragon.
He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous many-slaying hero.
He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed Indra's foe, the shattered forts in falling [5],
Footless and handless, still he challenged Indra, who smote him with his bolt between the shoulders.
Emasculate yet claiming manly vigor, thus Vritra lay with scattered limbs dissevered. . .
Nothing availed him lightning, nothing thunder, hailstorm or mist which he had spread around him: [6]
When Indra and the dragon strove in battle, Maghavan gained the victory forever.
Whom sawest thou to avenge the dragon, Indra, that fear possessed thy heart when thou hadst slain him;
That, like a hawk affrighted through the regions, thou crossedst nine-and-ninety flowing rivers?
Indra is king of all that moves and moves not, of creatures tame and horned, the thunder-wielder.
Over all living men he rules as sovereign, containing all as spokes within the felly. [7]
II. Hymn to Purusha
A thousand heads had Purusha [8], a thousand eyes, a thousand feet.
He covered earth on every side, and spread ten fingers' breadth beyond.
This Purusha is all that yet hath been and all that is to be;
The lord of immortality which waxes greater still by food.
So mighty is his greatness; yea, greater than this is Purusha. All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths eternal life in heaven.
With three-fourths Purusha went up: one-fourth of him again was here.
Thence he strode out to every side over what eats not and what eats.
From him Viraj [9] was born; again Purusha from Viraj was born.
As soon as he was born, he spread eastward and westward o'er the earth.
When gods prepared the sacrifice with Purusha as their offering,
Its oil was spring, the holy gift was autumn; summer was the wood.
They balmed as victim on the grass Purusha born in earliest time. [10]
With him the deities and all Sadhyas [11] and Rishis [12] sacrificed.
From that great general sacrifice the dripping fat was gathered up.
He fanned the creatures of the air and animals both wild and tame.
From that great general sacrifice, Richas and Samahymns [13] were born:
Therefrom the metres were produced, the Yajus [14] had its birth from it.
From it were horses born, from it all creatures with two rows of teeth:
From it were generated kine, from it the goats and sheep were born.
When they divided Purusha how many portions did they make?
What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet?
The Brahmin [15] was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya [16] made.
His thighs became the Vaisya [17], from his feet the Sudra [18] was produced.
The Moon was genered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth;
Indra and Agni [19] from his mouth were born, and Vayu [20] from his breath.
For from his navel came mid-air; the sky was fashioned from his head;
Earth from his feet, and from his ear the regions. Thus they formed the worlds.
Seven fencing-logs had he, thrice seven layers of fuel were prepared,
When the gods, offering sacrifice, bound, as their victim, Purusha.
Gods, sacrificing, sacrificed the victim: these were the earliest holy ordinances.
The mighty ones attained the height of heaven, there where the Sadhyas, gods of old, are dwelling.
[1] The Dragon is Vritra or clouds. In slaying the clouds, Indra brings rain.
[2] Twashtar is the god's blacksmith.
[3] Ambrosia is an intoxicating drink which only the gods could have.
[4] "Maghavan" means "Lord Bountiful" and is another name for Indra.
[5] Perhaps a better word for "forts" would be "prison." The clouds have imprisoned the rain.
[6] Vritra attempts to save himself from Indra through the use of magic.
[7] The rim of a spoked wheel. The world as a wheel is one of the most common images in Hindo thought.
[8] Purusha was the universal spirit, the source of all life.
[9] The female procreative force.
[10] During a Vedic sacrifice, speciall grass would be laid out for the gods to sit upon.
[11] Sadhyas were demigods.
[12] Rishis were sages.
[13] The sacred hymns of the Rig Veda.
[14] The rituals of the Yajur Veda. These a collection of formulas for ritual sacrifices.
[15] The Aryan priests.
[16] The Rajayana or Kshatriyas were the rulling, warrior class.
[17] The farmers, herders, traders and artisans.
[18] The slaves and servants.
[19] The god of fire and sacrifice.
[20] The wind. |
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are the principle texts of what is often regarded as the Hindu religion. Compiled between 800 and 500 BC, they are the result of meditations on many of the themes found in the Vedas, but brought to a new philosophical and spiritual level through the introduction of the concept of Brahman or universal spirit.
Chronologies
World: The Axial Age
India: The Vedic Era
I. Chandogya Upanishad
There lived once Svetaketu. . . To him his father Uddalaka . . . said: "Svetaketu, go to school; for no one belonging to our race, dear son, who, not having studied, is, as it were, a Brahmin by birth only"
Having begun his apprenticeship when he was twelve years of age, Svetaketu returned to his father, when he was twenty-four, having then studied all the Vedas,conceited, considering himself well-read, and stern.
His father said to him: "Svetaketu, as you are so conceited, considering yourself so well-read and so stern, my dear, have you ever asked for that instruction by which we hear what cannot be heard, by which we perceive what cannot be perceived, by which we know what cannot be known? "
"What is that instruction, Sir?" he asked. . .
"Fetch me . . . a fruit of the Nyagrodha tree."
"Here is one, Sir."
"Break it."
"It is broken, Sir."
"What do you see there?"
"These seeds, almost infinitesimal."
"Break one of them."
"It is broken, Sir."
"What do you see there?"
"Not anything, Sir."
The father said: "My son, that subtle essence which you do not perceive there, of that very essence this great Nyagrodha tree exists.
"Believe it, my son. That which is the subtle essence, in it all that exists has its self. It is the True. It is the Self, and you, . . . Svetaketu, are it. "
"Please, Sir, inform me still more," said the son.
"Be it so, my child," the father replied.
"Place this salt in water, and then wait on me in the morning."
The son did as he was commanded.
The father said to him: "Bring me the salt, which you placed in the water last night."
The son having looked for it, found it not, for, of course, it was melted.
The father said: "Taste it from the surface of the water. How is it?"
The son replied: "It is salt."
"Taste it from the middle. How is it?"
The son replied: "It is salt."
"Taste it from the bottom. How is it?"
The son replied: "It is salt."
The father said: "Throw it away and then wait. . .on me.
He did so, but the salt exists forever.
Then the father said: "Here also, in this body, . . . you do not perceive the True, my son; but there indeed it is.
"That which is the subtle essence, in it all that exists has its self. It is the True. It is the Self, and you, Svetaketu, are it."
II. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
"And when the body grows weak through old age, or becomes weak through illness, at that time that person, after separating himself from his members, as a mango, or fig, or Pippala-fruit is separated from the stalk, hastens back again as he came, to the place from which he started, to new life. . .
"Then both his knowledge and his work take hold of him and his acquaintance with former things.
"And as a caterpillar, after having reached the end of a blade of grass, and after having made another approach to another blade, draws itself together towards it, thus does this Self, after having thrown off this body and dispelled all ignorance, and after making another approach to another body, draw himself together towards it.
"And as a goldsmith, taking a piece of gold, turns it into another, newer and more beautiful shape, so does this Self, after having thrown off this body and dispelled all ignorance, make unto himself another, newer and more beautiful shape. .
The Upanishads:
The Development of the Upanishads from the Vedas
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The oldest Scriptures in all of India and the most important are called the vedas. All Hindus recognize the Vedas as the true origin of their faith because of the spiritual meaning behind them. The Scriptures served as a base for inner searching among the Indo-Aryan people as they were composed by seers or ancient prophets while in a state of inspiration. There are four Vedas: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. Each is divided into two groups: works and knowledge. The first is made of hymns and instructions regarding rights, ceremonies and rules of conduct. The latter is concerned with knowledge of who god is.
The Rig Veda in all probability was composed between 1500 BC and 900 BC (Walker, p.215). During this time period more than 200 canons of Scripture were produced. At the end of this era (800 BC to 400 BC) the Vendanta (meaning "end of the vedas") writings were completed. Although the Vedas were still held in high regard, several "seekers" felt that people were still searching for the meaning of life. The people needed something more than the Vedas to fulfill their needs. After deep contemplation, these seekers compiled the wise words and sayings of the gurus from whom they attained spiritual knowledge and wisdom. This collection of teachings became known as the Upanishads and the seekers themselves were given the name Upanishads that literally meant "came near to" the gurus.
It seems that the Upanishads were created as an Indo-Aryan reaction to the previous sacrificial rituals they were finding unsatisfactory. The Upanishad texts were writings comprised to further develop spiritual knowledge already attained in the vedic scriptures. The spiritual doctrine of these additional texts attempted to reach beyond the traditional vedic concept of reality which was more of a physical concept. The major concepts of the Upanishads are ultimately man's greatest dilemmas: the nature of god and man, the soul and god, man's role in the world and how they relate, the purpose of existence, and true salvation (Walker, p. 215). The difference between the Vedas and the Upanishad scriptures seems to be that the Vedas are held as the true foundation of their faith (the Hindu faith) and the Upanishads are the actual vehicle to attaining this enlightenment which brings them to a oneness with existence.
Throughout history, the Hindu people have constantly been seeking the meaning of life. This search can be seen through the Vedas and Upanishads as they seek to relate to god and the world and to find true salvation. The Hindu faith stems mainly from the ancient vedic scriptures and evolved to include the Upanishads. Modern Hindus would agree that the Upanishads are a necessary addition to the Vedas. The evolving of these texts was the first consistent expression that directed the people to a philosophical solution to their spiritual dilemmas, questions, and problems.
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"Now as a man is like this or like that, according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be: a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad. He becomes pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds.
"And here they say that a person consists of desires. And as is his desire, so is his will; and as is his will, so is his deed; and whatever deed he does, that he will reap.
"And here there is this verse: 'To whatever object a man's own mind is attached, to that he goes strenuously together with his deed; and having obtained the consequences of whatever deed he does here on earth, he returns again from that world . . . to this world of action.'[1]
"So much for the man who desires. But as to the man who does not desire, who, not desiring, freed from desires, is satisfied in his desires, or desires the Self only, his vital spirits do not depart elsewhere--being Brahman, he goes to Brahman.
"On this there is this verse: 'When all desires which once entered his heart are undone, then does the mortal become immortal, then he obtains Brahman.'"
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"Now as a man, when embraced by a beloved wife, knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within, thus this person, when embraced by the intelligent Self, knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within. This indeed is his true form, in which his wishes are fulfilled, in which the Self only is his wish, in which no wish is left--free from any sorrow.
"Then a father is not a father, a mother not a mother, the worlds not worlds, the gods not gods, the Vedas not Vedas. Then a thief is not a thief, a murderer not a murderer, a Kandala not a Kandala, [2] a Sramana not a Sramana, [3] a Tapasa not a Tapasa.[4] He is not followed by good, not followed by evil, for he has then overcome all the sorrows of the heart."
[1] This is the law of karma.
[2] The kandalas were the lowest of all the pariahs, those without caste.
[3] A holy beggar.
[4] A person atoning for sins.
Mahavira
b. ca. 550 BC
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Vardhamma Mahavira ("Great Hero") was not the founder of Jainism, but he reformed and refined previous teachings of the Jaina tradition. Mahavira was born in 599 BC in Kaundinyapura near modern Patna. Scholars debate the birth date and place. Some claim it to be as late as 490 BC in Kundapura near Vaishali or in Vaishali, which is in present day Bihar. Mahavira was born to a high-ranking family and received an education fit for a nobleman. He learned about literature, art, philosophy, and military and administrative sciences. Mahavira married a princess named Yasoda and had a daughter named Anojja. When Mahavira was 28, his parents died, and Mahavira wanted to abandon everything and everyone. To please his brother, Mahavira decided to stay at his home until the age of 30. For those two years, Mahavira practiced self-discipline and gave up luxuries by giving charity to beggars (Beck; 2).
When Mahavira left his family at the age of 30, he also gave up all property, wealth, and pleasures. He left his home and mediated, fasted, and went without water. After all this, Mahavira tore out his hair and wandered naked with a piece of cloth on his shoulder. Mahavira essentially became a homeless man. This did not bother Mahavira, because he was going to teach the Jain Religion. Vardhamma Mahavira became the 24th Tirthankara or "ford-maker" of the Jain or Jaina Religion.
Mahavira traveled naked to various parts of northern India, teaching and preaching. These parts included Bihar, western Bengal, and western Uttar Pradesh. Mahavira attracted all kinds of people, including kings, queens, rich, poor and both men and women.
Mahavira taught that the center of right conduct was the five great vows of which he preached until his death. Four were from the previous teacher Parshva, and the fifth was his own. The vows were (asteya) to not take anyone's private possessions, (satya) to always tell the truth, (aparigraha) to not own any property, (ahimsa) to not injure or annoy any living thing, and (brahmacarya) to have complete celibacy. Parshva let his followers wear clothing, but Mahavira did not want his followers to wear any. In this, Mahavira was very faithful to his teachings. The most noticeable extent of these vows was that Mahavira let vermin inhabit his body, because it was wrong to kill any living creature. Mahavira vowed to neglect his body and agreed to suffer all things that could happen. "Mahavira taught 73 methods for exertion in goodness by which many creatures, who believed in and accepted them, studied, learned, understood, and practiced them, and acted according to them, obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance, beatitude, and an end to all misery" (Beck; 9). This was the very extreme form of the vow. He gave up all he had and was celibate.
Mahavira's quest, for himself and others, was to finally reach nirvana or salvation. Nirvana is the attainment of the blissful state of one's self and of total freedom from the cycle of birth, death, life, pain, and misery (Angelfire; 1). The final step for Mahavira and all that follow him was the final removal of the karma or self. Mahavira attained nirvana the 13thyear of his new Jain life. This happened while he was fasting, not drinking water for two days, and meditating. Not only did Mahavira attain nirvana but he also attained kevala. Kevala is the absolute knowledge and is the highest awareness.
Vardhamma Mahavira finally died in 527 BC at the age of 72. Mahavira is believed to have become Siddha, never to go through the cycle of birth and death. Mahavira was able to rid himself of karma by destroying it and won his soul's salvation by never returning to earth.
Acaranga Sutra
The Acaranga Sutra, or Book of Good Conduct, is one of the sacred books of Jainism. While not written by Nataputta Vardhamana (ca. 599-527 BC), also known as Mahavira, the Great Hero, it contains many of his teachings.
Chronologies
India
The Arhats [1] . . . of the past, present, and future, all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus: all breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law [dharma], which the clever ones, who understand the world, have declared: among the zealous and the not zealous, among the faithful and the not faithful, among the not cruel and the cruel, among those who have worldly weakness and those who have not, among those who like social bonds and those who do not: "that is the truth, that is so, that is proclaimed in this."
Having adopted the law, one should not hide it, nor forsake it. Correctly understanding the law, one should arrive at indifference for the impressions of the senses and "not act on the motives of the world." "He who is not of this mind, how should he come to the other?"
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Beings which are born in all states become individually sinners by their actions.
The Venerable One [2] understands thus: he who is under the conditions of existence, that fool suffers pain. Thoroughly knowing karma, the Venerable One avoids sin.
The sage, perceiving the double karma, proclaims the incomparable activity, he, the knowing one; knowing the current of worldliness, the current of sinfulness, and the impulse.
Practicing the sinless abstinence from killing, he did no acts, neither himself nor with the assistance of others; he to whom women were known as the causes of all sinful acts, he saw the true state of the world . . .
He well saw that bondage comes through action. Whatever is sinful, the Venerable One left that undone: he consumed clean food.
Knowing measure in eating and drinking, he was not desirous of delicious food, nor had he a longing for it . . .
The Venerable One, exerting himself, did not seek sleep for the sake of pleasure; he waked up himself, and slept only a little, free from desires . . .
Always well guarded, he bore the pains caused by grass, cold, fire, flies, and gnats; manifold pains.
He traveled in the pathless country of the Ladhas.[3] . . .
In Ladha natives attacked him; the dogs bit him, ran at him.
Few people kept off the attacking, biting dogs . . .
Such were the inhabitants. Many other mendicants," eating rough food . . . and carrying about a strong pole [to keep off the dogs], . . . lived there.
Even thus armed they were bitten by the dogs, torn by the dogs. It is difficult to travel in Ladha.
Ceasing to use the stick against living beings, abandoning the care of the body, the houseless, the Venerable One endures the thorns of the villages being perfectly enlightened.
As an elephant at the head of the battle, so was Mahavira there victorious . . .
The Venerable One was able to abstain from indulgence of the flesh . . .
Purgatives and emetics, anointing of the body and bathing, shampooing arid cleansing of the teeth do not behoove him, after he learned [that the body is something unclean] . . .
In summer he exposes himself to the heat, he sits squatting in the sun; he lives on rough food: rice, pounded jujube, and beans . . .
Sometimes the Venerable One did not drink for half a month or even for a month.
Or he did not drink for more than two months, or even six months, day and night, without desire for drink. Sometimes he ate stale food . . .
Having wisdom, Mahavira committed no sin himself, nor did he induce others to do so, nor did he consent to the sins of others.
Having entered a village or a town, he begged for food which had been prepared for somebody else. Having got clean food, he used it, restraining the impulses . . . The Venerable One slowly wandered about, and, killing no creatures, he begged for his food.
Moist or dry or cold food, old beans, old pap, or bad grain, whether he did or did not get such food he was rich . . .
Himself understanding the truth and restraining the impulses for the purification of the soul, finally liberated, and free from delusion, the Venerable One was well guarded during his whole life.
The Venerable Ascetic Mahavira endowed with the highest knowledge and intuition taught the five great vows.
* * *
The first great vow, Sir, runs thus:
I renounce all killing of living beings, whether subtle or gross, whether movable or immovable. Nor shall I myself kill living beings, nor cause others to do it, nor consent to it. As long as I live, I confess and blame, repent and exempt myself of these sins, in the thrice threefold way, in mind, speech, and body . . .
The second great vow runs thus:
I renounce all vices of lying speech arising from anger or greed or fear or mirth. I shall neither myself speak lies, nor cause others to speak lies, nor consent to the speaking of lies by others . . .
The third great vow runs thus:
I renounce all taking of anything not given, either in a village or a town or a wood, either of little or much, of small or great, of living or lifeless things. I shall neither take myself what is not given, nor cause others to take it, nor consent to their taking it.
The fourth great vow runs thus:
I renounce all sexual pleasures, either with gods or men or animals. I shall not give way to sensuality . . .
The fifth great vow runs thus:
I renounce all attachments, whether little or much, small or great, living or lifeless; neither shall I myself form such attachments, nor cause others to do so, nor consent to their doing so.
[1] The perfect souls.
[2] The Mahavira
[3] The exact location is uncertain.
From the translation by Hermann Jacobi, Gaina Sutra, in Max Mueller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, 50 vols. (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1879-1910), vol. 22, pp. 36, 81-87, 202-208 passim. Reprinted in Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, eds., The Human Record: Sources of Global History, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, (New York; Houghton Mifflin, 1998) pp. 72-74.
Sidhartha Gautama, the Buddha:
c. 563-483 BC
gautama.gif (22427 bytes)
Sidhartha Gautama as a young man
Sidhartha was born (c. 563 BC; Kapilavastu, Nepal) into the Gautama family of the Shakaya clan. The Shakayas were members of the priestly-warrior caste. In fact, Sidhartha's father was the head of the tribe so Sidhartha was a prince and seemed destined to rule. He lived a luxurious life and the received the best education his father's wealth could provide, but his father also sheltered him from life's hardships.
He married a woman named Yashodhara and they lived in his father's house. Sidhartha was still protected from the trials of life. Yashodhara bore a son, and Sidhartha believed that he was happy.
Then, during one of his few excursions from the protection of his father's palace, Sidhartha saw three things which opened the harsh realities of life to him. He saw an old man, suffering from the frailties of age. He saw a sick man, suffering from disease. He also saw a dead man, which shocked him greatly. He finally realized that the infirmities of old age, and the pain of sickness and death caused suffering that he had never experienced. This revelation caused him to begin a search for truth that drastically changed his life, and, eventually, the lives of millions.
Back to "Rivals to Hinduism" Chronology
Back to "Buddhism" Chronology
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An ancient sculpture of the Buddha
At the age of twenty-nine he left his home, his wife, his son, and his father. He gave up his claim to the succession of his father's throne and left the palace. He studied Yogic meditation with two Brahman hermits and achieved high cognitive states in both trance and meditation, but his desire for absolute truth was not satisfied.
For the next six years, Sidhartha placed his body under severe asceticism, which included extreme fasting and suspension of breathing. These practices almost killed him, but they did not satisfy his search for truth.
He finally ended his acetic lifestyle and began to eat. Sidhartha decided to meditate until the absolute truth would lie clearly in front of him. He meditated under a Bodhi tree where he sat facing east.
At the age of thirty-five, on the night of the full moon, Sidhartha reached enlightenment and became an "enlightened one"--a Buddha (c. 528 BC) He had at last discovered the truth he had sought, and he immediately shared it with five ascetics who had practiced near him.
After a few weeks of rest, he decided to teach the way to enlightenment to others and went to Deer Garden where he held his first sermon, "The turning wheel of Dharma." Sidhartha felt a strong call to teach others even though he could never teach the content of enlightenment, only the way of enlightenment. Buddha called his teachings "the middle way", because it was in the middle between asceticism and indulgence.
For the next forty-five years he taught as the Buddha or "Shakyamuni" (sage of the shakaya"). He also established a community of monks called sanga.
The Buddha died after forty-five years of teaching at the age of eighty.
I. The Buddha's First Sermon
And the Blessed One thus addressed the five Bhikkhus [1]."There are two extremes, O Bhikkhus, which he who has given up the world ought to avoid. What are these two extremes? A life given to pleasures, devoted to pleasures and lusts: this is degrading, sensual, vulgar, ignoble, and profitless; and a life given to mortifications: this is painful, ignoble, and profitless. By avoiding these two extremes, O Bhikkhus, the Tathagata [2] has gained the knowledge of the Middle Path which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi [3], to Nirvana.[4]
Which, O Bhikkhus, is this Middle Path the knowledge of which the Tathagata has gained, which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvana? It is the Holy Eightfold Path, namely, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood, Right Endeavor, Right Memory, Right Meditation. This, O Bhikkhus, is the
Middle Path the knowledge of which the Tathagata has gained, which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvana.
"This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of Suffering: Birth is suffering; decay is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering. Presence of objects we hate, is suffering; separation from objects we love, is suffering; not to obtain what we desire, is suffering. Briefly, . . . clinging to existence is suffering.
"This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering: Thirst, that leads to rebirth, accompanied by pleasure and lust, finding its delight here and there. This thirst is threefold, namely, thirst for pleasure, thirst for existence, thirst for prosperity.
"This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering: it ceases with the complete cessation of this thirst, – a cessation which consists in the absence of every passion – with the abandoning of this thirst, with the doing away with it, with the deliverance from it, with the destruction of desire.
"This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering: that Holy Eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood, Right Endeavor, Right Memory, Right Meditation . . .
"As long, O Bhikkhus, as I did not possess with perfect purity this true knowledge and insight into these four Noble Truths . . . so long, O Bhikkhus, I knew that I had not yet obtained the highest, absolute Sambodhi in the world of men and gods....
"But since I possessed, O Bhikkhus, with perfect purity this true knowledge and insight into these four Noble Truths . . . then I knew, O Bhikkhus, that I had obtained the highest, universal Sambodhi . . .
"And this knowledge and insight arose in my mind: The emancipation of my mind cannot be lost; this is my last birth; hence I shall not be born again!"
II. On What it is Important to Know
Thus I have heard.
On certain occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Savatthi in Jetavana monastery in Anathapindika's Park. Now it happened to the venerable Malunkyaputta, [5] being in seclusion and plunged in meditation, that a consideration presented itself to his mind as follows:
"These theories that the Blessed One has left unexplained, has set aside and rejected – that the world is eternal, that the world is not eternal, that the world is finite, that the world is infinite, that the soul and the body are identical, that the soul is one thing and the body another, that the worthy person exists after death, that the worthy person does not exist after death, that the worthy person both exists and does not exist after death, that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death– these the Blessed One does not explain to me. And the fact that the Blessed One does not explain them to me does not please me nor suit me. Therefore I will draw near to the Blessed One and inquire of him concerning this matter. If the Blessed One will explain them to me, . . . I will lead the religious life under the Blessed One. If the Blessed One will not explain them to me, . . . I will abandon religious training and return to the lower life of a layman."
Then the venerable Malunkyaputta arose in the evening from his seclusion, and drew near to where the Blessed One was; and having drawn near and greeted the Blessed One, he sat down respectfully at one side. And seated respectfully at one side, the venerable Malunkyaputta spoke to the Blessed One as follows:
"Reverend Sir, it happened to me, as I was just now in seclusion and plunged in meditation, that a consideration presented itself to my mind, as follows: 'These theories that the Blessed One has left unexplained, has set aside and rejected – that the world is eternal, that the world is not eternal . . . that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death – these the Blessed One does not explain to me. And the fact that the Blessed One does not explain them to me does not please me nor suit me. I will draw near to the Blessed One and inquire of him concerning this matter. If the Blessed One will explain to me, either that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal . . . or that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death, in that case I will lead the religious life under the Blessed One. If the Blessed One will not explain to me, either that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal . . . or that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death, in that case I will abandon religious training and return to the lower life of a layman.'
"If the Blessed One knows that the world is eternal, let the Blessed One explain to me that the world is eternal; if the Blessed One knows that the world is not eternal, let the Blessed One explain to me that the world is not eternal. If the Blessed One does not know either that the world is eternal or that the world is not eternal, the only upright thing for one who does not know, or who has not that insight, is to say, 'I do not know; I have not that insight."'
"Pray Malunkyaputta, did I ever say to you, 'Come, Malunkyaputta, lead the religious life under me, and I will explain to you either that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal . . . or that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death'?"
"No, indeed, Reverend Sir."
"Or did you ever say to me, 'Reverend Sir, I will lead the religious life under the Blessed One, on condition that the Blessed One explain to me either that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal . . . or that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death'?"
"No, indeed, Reverend Sir." . . .
"That being the case, vain man, whom are you so angrily denouncing?
"Malunkyaputta, any one who should say, 'I will not lead the religious life under the Blessed One until the Blessed One shall explain to me either that the world is eternal. Or that the world is not eternal . . . or that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death'; that person would die, Malunkyaputta, before the Tathagata had ever explained this to him.
"It is as if, Malunkyaputta, a man had been wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison, and his friends and companions, his relatives and kinsfolk, were to procure for him a physician or surgeon; and the sick man were to say, 'I will not have this arrow taken out until I have learned whether the man who wounded me belonged to the warrior caste, or to the Brahmin caste, or to the agricultural caste, or to the menial caste.'
"Or again he were to say, 'I will not have this arrow taken out until I have learned the name of the man who wounded me, and to what clan he belongs.'
"Or again he were to say, 'I will not have this arrow taken out until I have learned whether the man who wounded me was tall, or short, or of the middle height.'
"Or again he were to say, 'I will not have this arrow taken out until I have learned whether the man who wounded me was black, or dusky, or of a yellow skin.'
"Or again he were to say, 'I will not have this arrow taken out until I have learned whether the man who wounded me was from this or that village, or town, or city.' . . .
* * *
"That man would die, Malunkyaputta, without ever having learned this."
"In exactly the same way, Malunkyaputta, any one who should say, 'I will not lead the religious life under the Blessed One until the Blessed One shall explain to me either that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal . . . or that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death'; that person would die, Malunkyaputta, before the Tathagata had ever explained this to him.
"The religious life, Malunkyaputta, does not depend on the dogma that the world is eternal; nor does the religious life, Malunkyaputta, depend on the dogma that the world is not eternal. Whether the dogma obtain, Malunkyaputta, that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal, there still remain birth, old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, misery, grief, and despair, for the extinction of which in the present life I am prescribing . . .
"Accordingly, Malunkyaputta, bear always in mind what it is that I have not explained, and what it is that I have explained. And what, Malunkyaputta, have I not explained; I have not explained, Malunkyaputta, that the world is eternal; I have not explained that the world is not eternal; I have not explained that the world is finite; I have not explained that the world is infinite; I have not explained that the soul and the body are identical; I have not explained that the soul is one thing and the body another; I have not explained that the worthy person exists after death; I have not explained that the worthy person does not exist after death; I have not explained that the worthy person both exists and does not exist after death; I have not explained that the worthy person neither exists nor does not exist after death. And why, Malunkyaputta, have I not explained this? Because, Malunkyaputta, this profits not, nor has to do with the fundamentals of religion, nor tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiescence, the supernatural faculties, supreme wisdom, and Nirvana; therefore I have not explained It.
"And what, Malunkyaputta, have I explained? Misery, Malunkyaputta, have I explained; the origin of misery have I explained; the cessation of misery have I explained; and the path leading to the cessation of misery have I explained. And why, Malunkyaputta, have I explained this? Because, Malunkyaputta, this does profit, has to do with the fundamentals of religion, and tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiescence, knowledge, supreme wisdom, and Nirvana; therefore have I explained it. Accordingly, Malunkyaputta, bear always in mind what it is that I have not explained, and what it is that I have explained."
Thus the Blessed One spoke and, delighted, the venerable Malunkyaputta applauded the speech of the Blessed One.
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[1] While the term originally meant "ascetics," the term came to mean a Buddhist monk.
[2] One of many titles given to Siddhartha Gautama.
[3] Complete enlightenment.
[4] Release from the cycles of death and rebirth. It also means "extinction," as in the extinction of one's self and "Buddhahood."
[5] one of the Budha's disciples.
Beginnings of Buddhism
Buddhism in China and Japan
- AD 25: Buddhism introduced to China:
 Later Han Dynasty
- 399-414: Fa-hsien travels to India
- 476-542: T'an-luan is first master of the Pure Land School
- 538-597: Chih-i organizes the T-ien-t'ai School
- 574-622: Prince Shotuku, the "founder" of Buddhism in Japan
- c. 675: Development of Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism
- 868: The oldest printed book in the world: a Chinese translation of the Diamond-Cutter Sutra
- 1200: Zen Buddhism (Ch'an) introduced to Japan.Japan Chronology
Chandragupta
c. 321-c. 297 BC
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Chandragupta Maurya was the first emperor of the Mauryan empire. Chandragupta came to rule much of North India. He rose to power under the influence of a minister named Chanakya, and, with his assistance, overthrew the last of the Nanda kings and captured their capital city of Pataliputa. He then turned his attention to northwestern India where a power vacuum had been left by the departure of Alexander the Great. The way in which he carried himself and the way he ruled seems like a mirror image of the Macedonian conqueror. He took over the lands east of the Indus and then, moving south, much of what is now Central India.
The year 305 BC. saw him back in the Northwest, where Seleucus Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of Babylonia, was threatening fresh invasions. Chandragupta not only stopped his advance but pushed the frontier farther west into what is now Afghanistan. This showed how powerful Chandragupta really was. Apparently, a settlement was reached between the two monarchs. It included a matrimonial alliance of some kind between Chandragupta and Seleucus and the latter's dispatch of an ambassador, Megasthenes, to the Maury court at Pataliputra. Toward the end of his life, Chandragupta renounced his throne and became an ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahn, ending his days in self-starvation [1].
The Mauryan empire, which Chandragupta founded, owes its name to the house of the Mauryas, under whose rule the Indian subcontinent saw, for the first time in history, a considerable degree of political unity. The empire lasted until 187 BC. The Mauryan empire was very strong and independent because it had some kind of political unity. Everything starts at the Mauryan capital. The Mauryan capital was at Pataliputra (present day Patna), the chief city of the old kingdom of Magadha. The economy, in all its important aspects, was controlled by the state, and mines, forests, large farms, munitions, and spinning industries were state owned and managed. The people were divided into seven endogamous groups--"philosophers", peasants, herdsmen, traders, soldiers, government officials, and councilors. The army was composed of the four traditional Indian divisions: forces mounted on elephants, on chariots, cavalry, and infantry, and tended to be large (Chandragupta's forces reputedly numbered 600,000 men). The religious life of the empire may perhaps best be characterized as pluralistic. Brahamanism, Buddhism, Jainism, the Ajivikas, and wandering mendicants of other types all seem to have coexisted side by side. The general religious policy of the Mauryas was to encourage tolerance. In modern times the Maurya Empire is remembered as one of the golden ages of Indian history, a time when the country was united and independent. [2]
Asoka
ca. 322-185 BC
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"There is no better work than promoting the welfare of the world. Whatever be my great deeds, I have done them in order to discharge my debt to all beings."
(The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilization)
These words were spoken by Asoka, the third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty of India and the best known ancient ruler of India. Asoka was born in 304 BC and came to the throne in 270 BC, after a power struggle that resulted in the death of one of his brothers. In 260 BC, Asoka attacked Kalinga (present day Orissa) in order to expand his empire, which he ruled as a tyrant at that time. This campaign was successful, but resulted in a horrible loss of life. Overwhelmed by the carnage he had caused, Asoka changed his way of life.
In remorse for his bloody attack on Kalinga, Asoka renounced war forever and became a Buddhist. He sent missionaries to South East Asia, Cyrene (present day Libya), Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia. His son, Mahinda, became a Theraveda monk and was sent to introduce Buddhism to Sri Lanka. In Asoka's empire, all religions were tolerated butBuddhism was preferred. Buddhism became a dominant religious force under Asoka.
Although Asoka was not known as a skillful politician, he was devoted to the well-being of his subjects. He made provisions for public health care for both humans and animals, introduced improvements in agriculture and horticulture, established wildlife reserves, and sponsored cave excavations to create shelter for traveling monks and ascetics. Asoka campaigned for moral, spiritual, and social renewal. He had inspectors of morality, who were appointed to make sure that his policies were carried out. He also reformed the administrative and judicial systems of India.
| Art and architecture in Asoka's empire was scant, but reflected the importance of Buddhism. Some of Asoka's edicts, carved on pillars and rocks, form the earliest known epigraphs in the subcontinent. There are 20 known pillars that Asoka commissioned. These pillars are made out of shafts of sandstone and display Buddhist symbols such as the wheel and the lion. Asoka had a sculpture of four lions placed on top of each of his pillars. These lions remain a national symbol of India today. Asoka's pillars are some of India's earliest major stone sculptures. The artistic and Buddhist advancement under Asoka encouraged the further development of stone architecture. The impacts of Asoka's reign are chiefly religious. He was the first powerful monarch to practice Buddhism. He united most of the subcontinent and introduced it to Buddhism, and his missionary activity is credited with the firm establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. |
Prehistoric Period: ca. 3000-1200 BC
ca. 3000-2600: Indus Valley civilization: Harappan civilization
ca. 1200-500 BC: Vedic Era
ca. 550-100 BC: Rivals to Hinduism
ca. 322-185 BC: Mauryan Empire
ca. AD 320-540: Gupta Era
- ca. 320-335: Chandragupta I
- ca. 335-376: Samudragupta
- ca. 376-415: Chandragupta II
- ca. 454-500: Hun Invasions
- ca. 540: End of Gupta Dynasty
ca. AD 500-1001: Period of Political instability
- ca. 540: Rise of Chalukyas at Vatapi
- ca. 606-646: Harsha of Kanauj
- ca. 700-800: Buddhism spreads to Tibet and Nepal
- 711: Arabs invade Sind
- ca. 750: Rise of imperial Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas
- 760: Palas in Bengal
- ca. 846: Rise of Cholas and defeat of Pallavis
- ca. 970: Revival of Chalukyas and defeat of Rashtrakutas
1000-1750: Period of Muslim dominance
- 1001: Raids by Mahmud of Ghanzi
- 1206-1290: Slave Dynasty and Beginning of Delhi Sultanate
- 1290-1320: Khalji Sultanate
- 1320-1413: Tughlug Sultanate
- 1414-1451: Sayyid Sultanate
- 1451-1526: Lodi Sultanate
- 1498: Vasco da Gama arrives in India
- 1483-1757: The Mughal Empire
- 1502: Portuguese establish colony at Cochin
- 1526-1530: Reign of Babur
- 1556-1605: Reign of Akbar
- 1600: British East India Company is chartered
- 1605-1627: Reign of Jahangir
- 1628-1658: Reign of Shah Jahan
- 1658-1707: Reign of Aurangzeb
- 1744-1748: War between French and British
1750-1947: India under British Rule
1947-present: The Indian Republic
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